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SANITARY  TROOPS  IN  FOREIGN  ARMIES 


PREPARED  BY  THE  WAR  COLLEGE  DIVISION,  GENERAL  STAFF  CORPS 

AS    A    SUPPLEMENT    TO    THE    STATEMENT    OF    A    PROPER   MILITARY 

POLICY  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES 


WCD  9319-1 


'N 


ARMY  WAR  COLLEGE  ;  WASHINGTON 

NOVEMBER,   1915 


533 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFPIOE 

1916 


•  ••,••    • 


v.\- •/•  :«it  :  •::    :  '.\ 


•  •  • 
•  ••••   •*•' 


BIOLOGY 
LIBRARY 


War  Department. 


Document  No.  533. 
OSi(x  of  the  Chief  of  Staff. 


SYNOPSIS. 


Introduction. 

Page. 

Duties  of  sanitary  troops 7 

General  scheme  of  distribution 7 

(a)  The  zone  of  advance 7 

(6)  The  zone  of  the  lines  of  communication ' 7 

(c)  The  zone  of  the  interior  or  home  territory 7 

Utilization  of  reserve  forces 9 

Organization  and  administration  adopted  by  leading  powers. 10 

I.  England. 

Peace  establishment 10 

Regular  Army 10 

Territorial  force  (military  service) 10 

Indian  force 10 

Colonial  forces 10 

Organization  of  the  medical  services 11 

Royal  Army  Medical  Corps 11 

Distribution  of  personnel  (Royal  Army  Medical  Corps) 11 

The  Indian  Medical  Service 11 

Territorial  force  (medical  corps) 12 

Distribution  of  personnel  (territorial  force) 12 

Royal  Army  Reserve  Corps 12 

War  organization 12 

Service  with  combatant  units 13 

Mobile  medical  units 13 

Motor  workshop  section 14 

Lines  of  communication 14 

Casualty  clearing  stations 14 

Sanitary  section 14 

Stationary  hospitals  and  base  hospitals 15 

Hospital  trains 15 

Hospital  ships 15 

Home  territory 15 

II.  France. 

Peace  establishment 15 

Organization  of  the  medical  services 16 

Service  de  sante  de  Tarmie  de  terre 16 

Corps  de  sante  rnilitaire  (commissioned  medical  officers  and  pharmacists) ....  16 

Officers  d 'administration 17 

Section  d'infirmiere  (hospital  corps) 17 

Sanitary  soldiers  belonging  to  combatant  units 17 

Administration  and  distribution  of  personnel 18 

533  (3) 


i?  ^  ^  o  rt.  A 


II.  France — Continued. 

Page. 

The  colonial  medical  service 18 

Enlisted  personnel 19 

War  organization 19 

Eegimental  service 19 

Mobile  field  units 19 

Ambulance  sections 20 

Sections  DTiospitalization 20 

Divisional  bearer  companies 20 

Cavalry  ambulances. .  - 20 

Corps  bearer  companies 20 

Lines  of  communication 21 

Evacuation  hospitals 21 

Auxiliary  convoys. 21 

Motor  ambulance  sections 21 

Reserve  medical  personnel 21 

Hospital  trains 22 

Zone  of  the  interior 22 

III    Germany. 

Military  service 22 

The  standing  army 23 

Greneral  organization  of  the  medical  service 23 

The  sanitats  korps 23 

The  sanitats  offizier  korps 23 

The  sanitats  offizier  diensttuer 23 

The  stanitats  mannschat 24 

The  militar  krankenwarter 24 

The  krankentrager 24 

Apothecaries  and  quartermasters 25 

Administration  and  distribution  of  personnel 25 

"War  organization 26 

Medical  personnel  with  combatant  organizations 26 

Sanitats  bataillon 26 

Field  hospitals 27 

Lines  of  communication 27 

Hospital  trains 29 

Home  territory 29 

IV.  Austria-Hungary. 

Military  service 29 

Organization  of  the  medical  service 30 

The  militar  arzliches  offizers'  korp *. 30 

The  sanitats  truppe 30 

Sanitats  hilfspersonal  bei  den  truppen 31 

Medical  assistants 31 

Litter  bearers 32 

Carriers  of  equipment 32 

Pharmacists  and  supply  officials 32 

Nursing  sisters 32 

Administration  and  distribution  of  personnel 32 

Regimental  hospitals 33 

Garrison  hospitals 33 

588 


IV.  Austria-Hungary — Continued. 

Page. 

War  organization 33 

Medical  service  in  the  zone  of  advance 34 

Regimental  medical  service 34 

The  divisional  medical  unit 35 

Other  medical  units 35 

Field  Hospitals 35 

Lines  of  communication 36 

Mobile  reserve  hospitals 36 

Field  depots  for  slightly  sick 36 

Rest  stations 36 

Field  medical  supply  depot 36 

Hospital  trains 36 

Mobile  laboratories 37 

Surgical  detachments 37 

Zone  of  the  interior 37 

V.  Italy. 

Peace  establishment 37 

General  organization  of  the  medical  service 38 

Ufficiali  medici  di  corps  sanitario  (oflicers  of  the  medical  corps) 38 

Pharmacists : 39 

Administration  officers 39 

Enlisted  personnel 39 

Nursing  sisters 40 

General  distribution  of  personnel 40 

War  organization 41 

Medical  service  with  combatant  units 42 

Medical  field  units 42 

Ambulance  companies 42 

Field  hospitals 43 

Lines  of  communication 43 

Home  territory , 43 

VI.  Russia. 

Peace  establishment. 44 

Organization  of  the  medical  service 45 

Administration  and  distribution  of  personnel 46 

Feldshers 47 

Nadzirateli 47 

War  organization 48 

Medical  service  with  combatant  units 48 

Mobile  medical  units 48 

The  divisional  lazaret 49 

Field  hospitals 49 

Lines  of  communication — Transport  column 49 

Hospital  trains 50 

Sanitary  detachments 50 

Evacuation  hospitals 50 

Home  territory 50 

633 


6 

VII.  Japan. 

Pagre. 

Peace  establishment 51 

Gueneki  (the  active  army) 51 

Yobi  (first  reserve) 51 

Kobi  (second  reserve) 51 

Hoju  (replacement  troops,  reserve  of  recruitment) 51 

Kakurnin,  first  part  (the  national  army,  first  part) 51 

Kaknrnin,  second  part  (the  national  army,  second  part) 51 

Organization  of  the  medical  department 51 

Commissioned  officers 51 

Reserve  medical  officers 52 

Pharmacists 52 

Enlisted  personnel 52 

Administration  and  distribution  of  personnel 53 

War  organization 53 

Divisional  medical  service 54 

Medical  service  with  combatant  units 54 

Enlisted  personnel 54 

Field  medical  units 54 

Bearer  battalions 55 

Field  hospitals 55 

Lines  of  communication 55 

Reserve  medical  personnel 55 

Sick  and  wounded  transport  detachments : 56 

Base  hospitals 56 

Home  territory 56 

Summary. 

The  percentage  of  medical  officers  in  permanent  peace  establishments 57 

The  percentage  of  medical  personnel  for  duty  directly  with  troops  as  taken 

from  tables  of  organization 57 


SANITARY  TROOPS  IN  FOREIGN  ARMIES, 


INTRODUCTION. 

DUTIES  OF  SANITARY  TROOPS. 

A  study  of  the  sanitary  troops  in  foreign  armies  shows  that  all  the 
great  powers  have  adopted  practically  the  same  principles  govern- 
ing the  employment  of  these  troops.  The  organization  and  distribu- 
tion of  the  various  units  is  to  some  extent  governed  by  the  military 
conditions  affecting  the  various  countries,  but  it  is  generally  recog- 
nized that  the  duties  of  sanitary  troops  are  (a)  the  care  and  treat- 
ment of  sick  and  wounded;  (b)  their  prompt  removal  out  of  the  zone 
of  combat;  (c)  the  maintenance  of  the  health  of  troops  by  the  insti- 
gation of  proper  sanitary  measures;  (d)  the  maintenance  of  an 
adequate  supply  of  medical  and  surgical  materiel;  (e)  the  prepara- 
tion and  preservation  of  records  of  sick  and  wounded. 

GENERAL   SCHEME   OF   DISTRIBUTION. 

For  the  proper  performance  of  these  duties  all  countries  make  a 
more  or  less  uniform  distribution  of  their  medical  personnel  in 
(a)  the  zone  of  advance;  (h)  the  zone  of  the  lines  of  communication; 
{c)  the  zone  of  the  interior  or  home  territory. 

The  general  scheme  of  medical  service  in  the  zone  of  advance  is 
to  provide  a  medical  detachment  for  each  regiment  or  similar  unit  to 
render  service  directly  to  that  unit,  and  to  provide  mobile  medical 
units  for  service  with  divisions,  corps,  and  field  armies. 

The  service  on  lines  of  communication  is  organized  so  as  to  provide 
*neans  for  (a)  evacuation  of  sick  and  wounded;  (h)  the  replenish- 
iQg  of  supplies  expended  at  the  front  by  the  mobile  field  units;  (c) 
the  transportation  of  wounded  to  those  points  where  definite  and 
complete  care  and  treatment  can  be  given  them;  (d)  the  care  of 
such  wounded  during  transportation. 

In  the  present  war  extensive  use  has  been  made  of  motor  transport 
to  convey  wounded  from  the  dressing  stations  to  the  rail  head,  and  of 
hospital  trains  and  hospital  ships  to  convey  them  to  the  zone  of  the 
interior  or  home  territory.    Qearmg  stations  or  evacuation  hospitals 

(7) 

688 


8 

have  been  established  at  the  advanced  bases  for  the  temporary  care 
of  patients  until  they  could  be  transferred  to  hospital  trains,  and 
large  semipermanent  hospitals  established  at  the  base  of  the  lines  of 
communimation  for  the  treatment  of  all  wounded  until  permanent 
disposition  could  be  made  of  them. 

Because  of  the  limited  territory  in  each  country,  the  greater  part 
of  the  wounded  have  been  returned  to  home  territory  as  quickly  as 
possible.  The  number  necessarily  retained  on  lines  of  communica- 
tion, however,  has  been  large.  The  English  Army,  after  the  first 
six  months  of  war,  had  established  at  Boulogne-Sur-Mer,  their  port 
of  embarkation,  22  hospitals,  where  an  average  of  some  11.000  pa- 
tients were  daily  under  treatment.  For  bringing  patients  to  these 
hospitals  they  were  employing  12  hospital  trains,  with  an  average 
capacity  of  400  patients  each.  And  for  transporting  to  England 
such  patients  as  it  was  necessary  to  invalid  home  there  was  a  fleet  of 
14  hospital  ships,  with  an  average  capacity  of  500  patients. 

The  French  Government  has  maintained  on  its  railways  90  hos- 
pital trains,  with  a  carrying  capacity  of  36,000  patients,  and  recently 
recommendations  have  been  made  to  increase  this  capacity  to  100,000 
patients.  In  accordance  with  these  recommendations  250  hospital 
trains  have  now  been  provided. 

In  the  zone  of  the  interior  provision  is  made  for  the  final  disposi- 
tion of  all  sick  and  wounded  and  the  preparation  and  shipment  of  all 
necessary  sanitary  material.  The  extent  of  preparation  necessary  in 
this  zone  can  be  realized  when  the  extent  of  casualties  is  considered. 
The  following  shows  the  number  of  wounded  reported  in  the  present 
war  up  to  July  1,  1915:  France,  700,000;  Great  Britain,  229,000; 
Russia,  1,982,000;  Germany,  852,000;  Austria-Hungary,  711,000;  Bel- 
gium, 160,000;  Serbia,  112,600;  Turkey,  40,000;  Japan,  910;  total, 
4,837,510  in  one  year  of  war.  Of  these  wounded  at  least  60  per  cent, 
or  approximately  3,000,000  were  sent  to  the  hospitals  in  home  terri- 
tory. Recent  reports  from  France  show  that  she  is  now  maintaining 
5,000  territorial  hospitals,  with  a  total  capacity  of  600,000  beds. 

For  the  performance  of  their  medical  service,  both  in  peace  and 
war,  all  armies  have  maintained  a  permanent  medical  personnel,  both 
commissioned  and  enlisted.  In  no  army,  however,  has  this  perma- 
nent personnel  been  sufficient  to  perform  all  the  duties  required  of  it 
in  the  present  war. 

A  study  of  the  war  tables  of  foreign  armies  shows  that  an  average 
proportion  of  4  officers  and  52  enlisted  men  of  the  sanitary  forces 
per  thousand  of  total  strength  are  prescribed  for  duty  directly  with 
troops  in  the  zone  of  advance.  The  proportion  for  duty  in  the  other 
two  zones  is  not  prescribed  definitely,  but  a  general  outline  is  given 
of  the  personnel  required  for  each  of  the  several  units.  Experience 
has  shown,  however,  that  a  slightly  smaller  proportion  is  required 

533 


for  duty  on  lines  of  communications  than  for  duty  in  the  zone  of 
advance  and  a  much  greater  proportion  for  duty  in  the  zone  of  the 
interior. 

UTILIZATION  OF  RESERVE  FORCES. 

All  countries  have  therefore  been  obliged  to  utilize  in  large  measure 
medical  assistance  from  sources  outside  of  the  army.  In  countries 
having  universal  military  service  nearly  every  medical  man  has  had 
a  certain  amount  of  military  training,  and  there  is,  in  consequence,  a 
large  force  of  partially  trained  medical  officers  available  both  in  the 
reserves  and  in  volunteer  aid  societies.  In  1913  Germany  had  34,136, 
France  20,809,  and  Austria  13,734  men  so  available.  These  men  have 
been  utilized  largely  on  service  in  hospitals  and  with  units  on  lines 
of  communication  and  the  zone  of  the  interior  and,  while  there  has 
been  some  shortage  of  men  for  medical  service  in  those  countries, 
practically  the  whole  medical  profession  was  able  to  render  satis- 
factorily some  service. 

In  England,  however,  where  no  appreciable  number  of  reserves 
were  available,  the  shortage  in  medical  personnel  has  been  keenly 
felt.  Urgent  appeals  have  been  made  to  the  entire  medical  profession 
in  the  United  Kingdom  to  give  some  part  of  their  time  to  service 
with  the  army.  A  statement  by  the  war  office,  September  4, 1915,  was 
to  the  effect  that  there  were  at  that  time  in  army  medical  service 
5,265  officers,  and  that  there  were  residing  in  England,  Wales,  and 
Ireland  6,555  medical  men  of  military  age  not  then  engaged  in  war 
service :  and  that  of  these  latter  one-third  were  immediately  required. 

Owing  to  her  inability  to  secure  from  her  own  population  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  medical  m«jn  for  army  service,  England  has  been 
compelled  to  draw  men  from  Canada,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand 
and  to  make  request  of  various  medical  colleges  in  this  country  to 
send  over  as  many  doctors  as  could  be  induced  to  accept  commissions. 
By  utilizing  to  the  utmost  all  available  medical  material  she  has  been 
able  to  secure,  approximately,  8,000  men  for  service  as  medical 
officers.  Of  this  number,  however,  only  1,100  are  men  trained  in 
medico-military  duties. 

Because  of  the  great  similarity  between  our  military  service  and 
that  of  England  this  shortage  of  trained  medical  officers  and  the 
difficulty  being  experienced  in  getting  even  untrained  medical  officers 
should  be  instructive  to  us. 

In  all  countries  considerable  reliance  has  been  placed  in  volunteer 
aid  societies  to  supplement  the  permanent  personnel.  In  Austria- 
Hungary  particularly  the  war  plans  contemplated  association  of  the 
Red  Cross  Society  with  the  medical  service  even  in  the  zone  of  ad- 
vance. The  assistance  rendered  by  these  societies  has  been  of  con- 
siderable value  in  establishments  on  lines  of  communication  and  the 
>'— No.  533—16 2 


10 

zone  of  the  interior  in  positions  not  requiring  military  training; 
but  they  have  not  been  of  much  value  in  actual  field  service  nor  in 
administrative  positions.  For  these  latter  men  thoroughly  trained  in 
medico-military  matters  have  been  found  essential. 

ORGANIZATION   AND   ADMINISTRATION   ADOPTED   Br    LEADING   POWERS. 

The  organization,  administration,  and  distribution  of  sanitary 
personnel  adopted  by  the  leading  powers  both  in  peace  and  in  war 
are  shown  in  the  following  pages. 

I.  ENGLAND. 

PEACE  ESTABLISHMENT. 

The  military  services  in  England  comprise  (a)  the  regular  army; 
(b)  the  territorial  forces;  (c)  the  Indian  force;  (d)  militia  forces  in 
various  colonies. 

REGULAR   ARMY. 

The  Regular  Army  is  organized  into  an  expeditionary  force,  serv- 
ing in  the  British  Isles,  and  a  colonial  force,  serving  in  the  various 
colonies  and  India.    The  peace  strength  of  this  army  is :  • 

British  Isles 134,  339 

Colonies  (other  than  India) 45,215 

India 75,884 

Total- 255,  438 

TERRITORIAL   FORCE. 

The  Territorial  Force  corresponds  to  our  militia  and  is  organized 
into  divisions  in  the  same  proportion  of  arms  but  in  smaller  num- 
bers than  the  regular  army.  It  has  a  strength  on  paper  of  315,408, 
but  probably  the  actual  strength  does  not  exceed  250,000  men. 

INDIAN  FORCE. 

The  Indian  Force  is  composed  of  native  troops  with  English  offi- 
cers. It  is  a  distinct  service  from  that  part  of  the  regular  army 
which  also  serves  in  India.  It  has  a  strength  of  approximately 
162,000  men. 

CX)L0NIAL  FORCES. 

All  colonies  maintain  bodies  of  native  troops,  officered  by  English- 
men. Canada,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand  maintain  considerable 
bodies  of  militia.  Their  organization  is  similar  to  that  of  the  reg- 
ular army. 

683 


u 

ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    MEDICAL   SERVICES. 

The  medical  personnel  for  the  various  forces  is  organized  along 
the  same  general  lines,  but  there  is  a  distinct  medical  force  for  each 
of  the  distinct  combatant  forces. 

These  various  medical  forces  are  (a)  the  Eoyal  Army  Medical 
Corps;  (h)  the  Indian  Medical  Service;  (c)  the  Medical  Corps  of  the 
Territorial  Forces;  (d)  the  Royal  Army  Medical  Reserve  Corps. 

ROYAL  ARMY  MEDICAL  CORPS. 

This  corps  comprises  both  a  commissioned  and  enlisted  personnel. 

At  the  head  of  this  corps  is  the  Director  General  of  Medical  Serv- 
ices, with  rank  of  lieutenant  general.  The  other  officers  are  11  major 
generals,  29  colonels,  130  lieutenant  colonels,  331  majors,  418  cap- 
tains, 128  lieutenants,  and  42  quartermasters;  total  commissioned, 
1,090. 

In  addition  to  these  officers  there  were  on  duty  before  the  outbreak 
of  the  present  war  65  medical  officers  from  the  retired  list  and  182 
officers  from  the  reserve  corps,  making  a  total  in  peace  of  fifty-three 
one-hundredths  of  1  per  cent  of  the  total  strength  of  the  regular 
army. 

The  enlisted  personnel  is  composed  of  warrant  officers,  staff  ser- 
geants, sergeants,  corporals,  and  privates.  It  has  a  total  strength  of 
approximately  4,000. 

DISTRIBUTION   OF  PERSONNEL. 

Officers  of  the  corps  serve  both  at  home  and  abroad.  The  enlisted 
personnel  serves  only  in  the  military  hospitals  at  home  stations.  In 
India  the  subordinate  duties  of  the  medical  department  are  performed 
by  noncommissioned  officers  and  privates  belonging  to  combatant 
units  who  volunteer  for  and  are  detailed  to  medical  work. 

The  pay  of  enlisted  men  in  the  Royal  Army  Medical  Corps  is 
slightly  higher  than  for  those  of  similar  rank  in  the  line.  In  addi- 
tion to  their  base  pay  all  men  below  the  rank  of  staff  sergeant  are 
also  granted  "corps  pay"  (extra  duty  pay)  while  on  duty.  This 
"  corps  pay  "  is  further  increased  by  6d.  per  day  for  those  men  who 
have  taken  a  course  in  and  been  graduated  from  the  "  Queen  Alex- 
andria's Nursing  Service." 

THE  INDIAN  MEDICAL  SERVICE. 

Medical  service  for  the  Indian  force  is  provided  by  a  separate  corps 
of  British  medical  officers  with  native  assistants  detailed  from  the 
line  for  subordinate  duties.  The  Indian  Medical  Corps  has  4  major 
generals,  15  colonels,  147  lieutenant  colonels,  227  majors,  318  captains, 

533 


18 

and  75  lieutenants;  total,  786.    Percentage  of  medical  officers  to  total 
strength  of  Indian  forces,  forty-eight  one-hundredths  of  1  per  cent. 

TERRITORIAL  FORCE. 

The  Medical  Corps  for  the  Territorial  Force  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  Eoyal  Army  Medical  Corps.  It  comprises  14  colonels,  62  lieu- 
tenant colonels,  140  majors,  836  captains  and  lieutenants,  80  quarter- 
masters, and  57  transport  officers;  total  commissioned,  1,189.  Pro- 
portion to  total  strength  forty-seven  one-hundredths  of  1  per  cent. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  PERSONNEL. 

The  Territorial  Force  is  divided  into  14  divisions,  and  the  medical 
service  of  each  division  is  under  the  direction  of  a  colonel  of  the  Ter- 
ritorial Medical  Corps.  The  other  medical  officers  for  the  division  are 
organized  into  either  field  ambulance  detachments  or  general  hos- 
pital detachments. 

With  each  division  there  are  3  field  ambulances,  with  a  staff  con- 
sisting of  1  lieutenant  colonel  in  command,  2  majors,  6  captains  or 
lieutenants,  1  quartermaster,  and  1  transport  officer.  In  addition 
to  the  42  field  ambulances  assigned  to  the  infantry  divisions  there 
are  14  mounted  brigade  field  ambulances,  with  a  staff  of  1  lieutenant 
colonel  in  command,  1  major,  4  captains  or  lieutenants,  1  quartermas- 
ter, and  1  transport  officer. 

Twenty- three  general  hospitals  are  organized  and  distributed 
throughout  the  divisions.  Each  general  hospital  is  under  the  com- 
mand of  1  lieutenant  colonel,  with  1  captain  and  1  quartermaster  as 
assistants.  The  medical  staff  consists  of  4  lieutenant  colonels,  8 
majors,  and  2  captains  or  lieutenants. 

In  addition  to  the  general  hospitals  and  field  ambulances  thus  pro- 
vided for  there  are  two  sanitary  companies  and  a  corps  of  special 
sanitary  officers  numbering  106. 

ROYAL  ARMY  RESERVE  CORPS. 

There  is  no  definite  number  of  officers  in  this  corps. 

WAR  ORGANIZATION. 

The  administrative  unit  in  time  of  war  is  the  infantry  division 
(19,558  officers  and  men). 

The  medical  service  of  the  division  is  under  the  direction  of  a 
Principal  Medical  Officer  (colonel),  with  1  captain  as  assistant  and  5 
enlisted  men  as  clerks  and  messengers. 

688 


13 

SERVICE  WITH  COMBATANT  UNITS. 

In  time  of  war  each  batallion  of  infantry,  regiment  of  cavalry, 
brigade  of  field  artillery,  etc.,  has  attached  to  it  1  medical  officer. 
The  enlisted  personnel  for  sanitary  duty  with  these  units  is  not 
derived  from  the  Royal  Army  Medical  Corps,  but  from  the  units 
themselves.  In  each  unit  30  men  are  specially  trained  in  sanitary 
duties:  1  noncommissioned  officer  and  8  privates  are  detailed  to 
act  as  sanitary  police;  1  noncommissioned  officer  and  4  privates  are 
detailed  to  insure  purity  of  the  water  supply;  16  privates  are  de- 
tailed as  litter  bearers;  and  1  lance  corporal  and  1  private  are 
detailed  as  orderlies  to  the  medical  officer.  The  latter  also  drives 
the  cart  or  pack  animal  carrying  medical  supplies  with  which  each 
unit  is  equipped. 

MOBILE  MEDICAL  UNITS. 

In  general  the  medical  units  prescribed  in  the  British  field-service 
regulations  for  both  the  zone  of  advance  and  lines  of  communication 
are  fewer  in  number  and  more  limited  in  capacity  than  those  pre- 
scribed by  other  armies.  The  only  mobile  units  are  the  field  ambu- 
lances with  the  divisions,  three  of  which  are  assigned  to  each 
division.  These  units  are  analogous  to  a  combination  of  ambulance 
companies  and  field  hospitals  in  our  service. 

Each  field  ambulance  is  under  the  command  of  a  major.  Royal 
Army  Medical  Corps,  and  is  made  up  of  a  bearer  division  and  a 
tent  division.  The  capacity  of  the  tent  division  is  150  patients, 
and  the  entire  ambulance  is  capable  of  being  subdivided  into  three 
complete  sections. 

The  personnel  of  the  bearer  division  comprises  3  medical  officers, 
6  noncommissioned  officers,  and  118  privates.  Royal  Army  Medical 
Corps. 

That  of  the  tent  division  comprises  6  medical  officers,  1  warrant 
officer,  16  noncommissioned  officers,  and  41  privates.  Royal  Army 
Medical  Corps. 

In  addition  to  this  personnel  from  the  Royal  Army  Medical 
Corps  there  are  4  sergeants,  2  artificers,  and  48  privates  of  the  army 
service  corps  attached.  Of  the  medical  personnel,  3  officers  may  be 
civilian  physicians  specially  employed,  and  90  litter  bearers  may  be 
recruits  specially  enlisted. 

The  total  personnel  of  each  field  ambulance  is  10  officers  and  236 
men. 

Recently  a  change  has  been  made  in  the  transportation  for  field 
ambulances,  motor  ambulances  being  largely  substituted  for  horse- 
drawn  vehicles. 

533 


14 

The  present  allowance  of  transportation  consists  of  4  carts,  11 
wagons,  3  horse-drawn  ambulances  and  7  motor  ambulances,  14 
riding  horses  and  39  draft  animals. 

MOTOR    WORKSHOP    SECTION. 

Attached  to  the  division  for  service  with  the  field  ambulances  is 
one  "workshop"  (army  service  corps).  The  function  of  this  unit 
is  to  keep  in  repair  the  motor  ambulances.  Its  personnel  consists 
of  1  officer,  12  artificers,  and  8  privates,  army  service  corps,  and  7 
drivers  from  the  transport  troops.  Its  transportation  is  3  motor 
trucks  for  stores  and  1  motor  car  for  personnel. 

The  total  sanitary  personnel  provided  for  each  division  in  war  is— 
commissioned,  52;  enlisted,  1,244.  Of  the  enlisted  personnel  656 
are  drawn  from  the  Royal  Army  Medical  Corps,  506  from  line 
organizations,  and  182  from  the  army  service  corps. 

LINES  or  COMMUNICATION. 

The  fixed  establishments  in  the  British  service  are  casualty  clear- 
ing stations,  sanitary  sections,  stationary  hospitals,  base  hospitals, 
hospital  trains  and  hospital  ships,  and  motor-transport  convoys, 
the  latter  having  been  recently  introduced. 

CASUALTY   CLEARING   STATIONS. 

These  stations  are  located  at  the  head  of  the  lines  of  communica- 
tion, and  are  simply  temporary  stopping  places  for  wounded  until 
they  can  be  evacuated  farther  to  the  rear  by  hospital  trains.  No 
beds  or  other  conveniences  are  provided,  as  patients  are  usually 
passed  through  these  stations  in  24  hours.  Their  personnel  com- 
prises 7  medical  officers  (4  of  whom  may  be  civilian  physicians 
specially  engaged),  1  quartermaster,  1  warrant  officer,  8  noncommis- 
sioned officers,  and  69  privates,  royal  army  medical  corps.  (Of  the 
latter  20  may  be  specially  enlisted.) 

Recently  motor-ambulance  convoys  have  been  organized  and  used 
very  successfully  in  bringing  the  wounded  from  the  dressing  sta- 
tions to  the  clearing  stations.  These  convoys  have  a  varying  number 
of  ambulances  and  each  ambulance  has  a  driver  and  orderly  from 
the  royal  army  medical  corps. 

SANITARY  SECTION. 

A  sanitary  section  includes  1  medical  officer,  2  noncommissioned 
officers,  and  25  privates,  royal  army  medical  corps.  Transporta- 
tion for  this  unit  is  provided  from  the  advanced  mechanical  trans- 
port depot,  and  consists  of  1  motor  truck  with  2  drivers.  Its  duties 
are  confined  exclusively  to  sanitary  work. 

633 


15 

STATIONARY  HOSPITALS  AND  BASE  HOSPITALS. 

These  hospitals  are  arranged  at  the  base  section  of  the  line  of 
communications.  At  present  22  of  these  hospitals  are  established  at 
Boulogne-sur-Mer.  Stationary  hospitals  have  a  capacity  of  200  beds 
and  a  staff  of  8  officers  and  86  men,  Royal  Army  Medical  Corps. 

General  hospitals  have  a  capacity  of  500  beds  and  a  staff  of  21 
officers  and  143  men  of  the  Royal  Army  Medical  Corps,  supplemented 
by  43  nursing  sisters. 

HOSPITAL  TRAINS. 

As  in  other  armies  in  the  present  war,  the  hospital  train  is  largely 
utilized  in  the  English  service.  A  number  of  these  trains  have  been 
provided,  with  an  average  carrying  capacity  of  396  cases.  The  med- 
ical personnel  consists  of  2  officers  and  45  men,  and  their  equipment 
includes  operating  cars,  kitchen  cars,  and  every  convenience  to  make 
them  practically  rolling  hospitals. 

HOSPITAL  SHIPS. 

Because  of  the  necessity  of  sea  transport  to  return  wounded  to 
home  territory,  England  has  equipped  a  number  of  hospital  ships. 
Details  as  to  the  personnel  and  equipment  of  these  ships  are  not 
available. 

HOME    TERRITORY. 

The  large  military  hospital  at  Netley  has  been  greatly  increased 
in  capacity  and  is  the  main  military  hospital  in  England.  Every 
other  available  military  and  civil  hospital  has  been  utilized,  how- 
ever, and  new  pavilion  hospitals  constructed.  Recent  reports  from 
the  Dardanelles  campaign  show  112,000  wounded  and  78,000  sick 
in  that  campaign  alone.  These  men  nearly  all  returned  to  England. 
An  idea  as  to  the  amount  of  hospital  capacity  required  in  home 
territory  may  be  gained  from  these  figures.  As  mentioned  in  the 
preface  of  this  study,  England  has  made  every  effort  to  utilize  her 
entire  medical  population  and  has  even  sought  medical  assistance 
abroad. 

II.  FRANCE. 

PEACE    ESTABLISHMENT. 

The  military  service  in  P'rance  are — (a)  the  Metropolitan  Army; 
(h)  the  Colonial  Forces;  (c)  the  Territorial  Army. 

Service  in  the  Metropolitan  Army  is  compulsory.  That  in  the 
Colonial  Forces  by  voluntary  enlistment.  All  males  between  the  ages 
of  18  and  45  are  liable  to  military  service.     This  service  is  divided 

533 


16 

into  (a)  that  with  the  colors  (3  years) ;  (5)  that  in  the  Metropolitan 
Army  Reserve  (10  years) ;  (c)  that  in  the  Territorial  Army  (5  years) ; 
and  that  (final  service)  in  the  Territorial  Army  Reserve  (9  years). 

The  Metropolitan  Army  is  organized  into  the  Army  of  the  In- 
terior, comprising  19  army  corps  (472,946  officers  and  men),  and  the 
Algerian-Tunisian  Army,  comprising  four  infantry  divisions  (68,620 
officers  and  men).  The  colonial  forces  (49,500  officers  and  men)  are 
partly  French  and  partly  native  troops.  The  portion  serving  in 
France  forms  a  colonial  army  corps  of  three  divisions  of  infantry 
and  one  brigade  of  artillery. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  MEDICAL  SERVICES, 

The  Metropolican  Army  and  the  Colonial  Forces  have  separate 
medical  services.  That  for  the  Metropolitan  Army  is  the  "  Service 
de  sante  de  I'armie  de  terre"  (army  medical  service).  That  for  the 
Colonial  Forces  is  the  "  Service  de  sante  "des  troops  coloniales  "  (colo- 
nial military  medical  service). 

SERVICE  DE  SANTE  DE  l'aRMIE  DE  TERRE. 

This  service  comprises — (a)  the  Corps  de  Sante  Militaire;  (h)  Offi- 
ciers  d'administration ;  ((?)- Sections  d'infirmieres. 

CORPS    DE    SANTE    MILITAIRE. 

(Commissioned  medical  officers  and  pharmacists.) 
The  titles,  rank,  and  number  of  medical  officers  and  pharmacists  in 
this  corps  are: 

MEDICAL   OFFICERS. 


Title. 


Rank. 


Number. 


M^decin  inspecteur  gdn^ral 

Mddecin  inspecteur 

M^decin  principal  de  premiere  classe. . . 
M6docin  principal  de  den xiftme classe. . 

M6decin  major  de  premi&re  classe 

M^.dccin  major  de  deuxifeme  classe 

M6decin  aide-major  de  premiere  classe.. 
M6decin  aide-major  de  deuxi^me  classe. 


Total. 


liieutenant  general. 

Major  general 

Colonel 

I>ieutenant  colonel . 

Major 

Captain 

Lieutenant 

Second  lieutenant . . 


5 
20 

60 

95 

370 

580 

670 


1.710 


PHARMACISTS. 


Pharmacien, 
Pharmacien, 
Pharmacien, 
Pharmacien, 
Pharmacien, 
Pharmacien, 
Pharmacien, 

Total.. 


mspecteur 

principal ,  premiere  classe . . . 
principal,  deuxi&me classe. . 

major,  premiftre  classe 

major,  cieuxifeme  classe 

aide-majcr,  premiere  classe. . 
aide-major,  deuxi^me  classe. 


Major  general , 

Colonel , 

Lieutenant  colonel 

Major 

Captain 

Lieutenant 

Second  lieutenant 


4 
5 

30 
45 
20 
10 

115 


533 


17 

OFFICIERS   d'aDMINISTRATION. 

These  officers  form  one  of  the  four  sections  into  which  the  French 
Quartermaster  Corps  is  divided.  Their  service  is,  however,  exclu- 
sively with  the  Medical  Department,  and  they  are  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  senior  medical  officer  of  the  command  with  which  they 
are  stationed.  In  addition  to  administrative  duties  in  the  matter 
of  supply,  etc.,  they  act  as  company  officers  for  the  sections  d'in- 
firmieres. 

Their  titles,  rank,  and  numbers  are: 


Title. 

Rank. 

Number. 

Officier  d'adminlstration,  prmcipal 

Major 

18 

OflBcier  d'administration,  premiere  classe 

CaptaiTi 

175 

Officier  d'administration,  deuxifeme  classe 

Lieutenant 

}           157 

Officier  d'administration,  troisi^me  classe 

Second  lieutenant 

Total 

350 

SECTION  d'iNFIRMIERE    (hOSPITAL  CORPS). 

The  army  hospital  corps  is  organized  into  25  sections  under  regu- 
lations as  regards  discipline  and  interior  economy  similar  to  infantry 
units.  One  section  is  usually  assigned  to  each  corps.  The  strength 
of  each  of  these  sections  varies  according  to  requirements  and  is 
fixed  by  the  minister  of  war.  They  vary  in  peace  from  60  to  800 
men. 

Recruits  are  received  direct  into  these  sections,  or  men  may  be 
transferred  from  combatant  units.  After  a  period  of  preliminary 
drill  and  instruction  they  are  distributed  to  the  various  hospitals  in 
the  army  corps  to  which  their  section  is  attached  for  duty  as  hos- 
pital attendants. 


SANITARY  SOLDIERS   BELONGING  TO   COMBATANT  UNITS. 

In  addition  to  the  soldiers  of  the  sections  d'infirmieres  whose 
services  are  confined  to  military  hospitals,  there  are  three  classes 
of  men  belonging  to  combatant  units,  but  performing  medical  service 
under  the  medical  officers  attached  to  those  units.  These  sanitary 
soldiers  are  (a)  soldat  infirmieres  (hospital  attendants),  (h)  soldat 
brancardiers  (litter  bearers),  (c)  brancardiers  d'ambulance  (litter 
bearers  obtained  from  bandsmen,  mechanics,  and  others),  (d)  mede- 
cine  auxiliares  (doctors  or  medical  students  in  second  year  of  serv- 
ice; these  men  hold  warrant  rank). 

In  peace  two  men  (soldat  infirmieres)  are  detailed  from  each 
battalion  of  infantry,  artillery,  or  engineers,  and  four  from  each 
30669°— No.  533—16 -3 


18 

regiment  of  cavalry  or  artillery  for  service  under  the  medical  officers 
attached  to  the  organization.  Their  duties  are  assisting  in  caring 
for  the  sick  of  the  organization  who  do  not  require  extensive  hospital 
treatment. 

Four  men  in  each  company  of  infantry  or  engineers  and  in  each 
battery  of  field  or  foot  artillery  are  designated  soldat  brancardieres 
and  are  trained  while  serving  with  their  organization  in  the  work 
of  litter  bearers.  Their  services  are  not  utilized  as  litter  bearers  in 
time  of  peace  (except  during  maneuvers),  but  upon  mobilization 
they  take  up  these  duties. 

Any  bandsmen,  mechanics,  etc.,  in  excess  of  the  number  required 
as  litter  bearers  for  the  regimental  units  are  also  trained  in  duties 
of  litter  bearers.  They  are  designated  brancardiers  d'ambulance, 
and  on  mobilization  they,  together  with  reservists  and  unattached 
men  from  the  sections  d'infirmieres  militaire,  form  the  litter  squads 
for  bearer  companies. 

ADMINISTRATION    AND    DISTRIBUTION    OF    PERSONNEIi, 

Each  corps  or  district  has  a  Principal  Medical  Officer  with  rank  of 
major  general  (or  colonel),  with  one  major  (corps  de  sante)  and  two 
officiers  d'administration  as  assistants.  The  duties  of  these  officer's 
comprise  not  only  the  general  administration  and  inspection  of  the 
medical  service  of  the  standing  army,  but  that  of  the  reserves  and 
territorial  army  also. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  junior  medical  officers  are  assigned  to 
regiments  and  smaller  units  for  service  directly  with  those  units. 

Other  medical  officers  are  distributed  to  the  large  military  hos- 
pitals and  to  duty  with  civil  hospitals  in  which  army  patients  are 
treated. 

THE   COLONIAL.  MEDICAL  SERVICE. 

This  service  is  similar  in  organization  to  that  for  the  Metropolitan 
Army.    The  commissioned  personnel  comprises: 

MEDICAL   OFFICERS. 


Title. 


MMecin-inspecteur  general 

M6decin-inspecteur 

M(5(]ecin-principal  premiere  cla?se . 
M^decin-principal  deuxi^meclasse . 

Mddecin-major  premifere  classe 

Medecin-major  deuxifeme  classe 

Aide-major,  preraifere  classe 

Aide-major,  deuxi6me  classe 


Total.. 
633 


Rank. 


Lieutenant  general. 

Major  general 

Colonel 

Lieutenant  colonel . 

Major 

Captain 

Lieutenant 

Second  lieutenant. . 


Number. 


12 
18 

88 
175 

141 


436 


19 

PHARMACISTS. 


Pharmacien  principal,  premiere  classe . . . , 
Pharmacien  principal,  deuxifeme  classe... 

Pharmacien  major,  premise  classe 

Pharmacien  major,  deuxi6me  classe 

Pharmacien  aide-major,  premiere  classe . 
Pharmacien  aide-major,  deuxi6me  classe . 


Total. 


Colonel , 

Lieutenant  colonel . . . . 

Major , 

Captain 

Lieutenant 

Second  lieutenant 


46 


ENLISTED  PERSONNEL. 

The  enlisted  personnel  comprises  1  section  d'infirmieres  and  the 
personnel  supplied  by  combatant  units.  Men  for  the  section  d'in- 
firmieres are  enlisted  in  France  and  sent  to  the  colonies  after  a 
period  of  instruction  in  the  home  depots.  The  regimental  medical 
personnel  is  native. 

WAR  ORGANIZATION. 

With  the  headquarters  staff  of  each  field  army  is  a  "  Medical  In- 
spector General "  (lieutenant  general)  or  "  Medical  Inspector"  (major 
general)  with  a  staff  of  1  medical  major,  1  supply  officer,  and  3  cooks. 

With  each  corps  is  a  "Medical  Inspector"  (major  general)  or 
"  Principal  Medical  Officer,  first  class  "  (colonel)  with  a  staff  of  1 
lieutenant,  medical  corps;  1  supply  officer  and  4  enlisted  men,  hos- 
pital corps  (including  1  cyclist). 

With  each  division  headquarters  is  a  "Principal  Medical  Officer, 
second  class"  (lieutenant  colonel).  His  staff  consists  of  2  privates, 
hospital  corps  (1  being  a  cyclist). 


REGIMENTAL  SERVICE. 

In  time  of  war  this  service  is  increased  by  the  incorporation  of 
reserve  officers,  regimental  hospital  attendants,  and  regimental  litter 
bearers  from  the  reserves.  The  war  personnel  consists  of  7  medical 
officers  (3  from  the  reserve),  12  attendants,  and  92  litter  bearers  (40 
from  the  band). 

MOBILE  FIELD  UNITS. 

The  field  hospitals  formerly  forming  part  of  the  medical  service 
for  each  corps  have  recently  been  abolished,  and  wounded  are  now 
removed  directly  from  the  dressing  stations  to  the  evacuation  hos- 
pitals at  the  rail  head.  The  mobile  medical  units  attached  to  each 
division  are  now  4  field  ambulance  sections,  3  sections  d'hospitaliza- 
tion,  and  1  bearer  company. 

Those  attached  to  each  corps  are  1  cavalry  ambulance  section  and 
1  corps  bearer  company. 

533 


a? 

AMBULANCE  SECJTIONS. 

Ambulance  sections  establish  dressing  stations.  Each  section  has 
a  personnel  of  6  medical  officers,  1  pharmacist,  2  supply  officers,  2 
noncommissioned  officers,  and  36  privates,  hospital  corps,  and  1  non- 
commissioned officer  and  9  privates,  train  troops.  Three  enlisted 
men  are  also  provided  as  officers'  orderlies.  The  transportation  con- 
sists of  5  riding  horses,  14  draft  animals,  and  6  wagons  (1  for  per- 
sonnel and  6  for  supplies). 

SECTIONS  d'hOSPITALIZATION. 

These  sections  furnish  additional  personnel  and  supplies  to  ambu- 
lance sections  temporarily  immobilized.  The  personnel  of  each  sec- 
tion is  1  medical  officer,  3  noncommissioned  officers,  and  1  private, 
hospital  corps,  and  1  noncommissioned  officer  and  3  privates,  train 
troops.  The  transportation  is  1  riding  horse,  6  draft  animals,  and  3 
wagons. 

DIVISIONAL  BEARER   COMPANIES. 

These  sections  work  in  conjunction  with  the  ambulance  sections. 

The  personnel  consists  of  6  medical  ofiicers  (4  of  whom  are  warrant 
officers  from  the  reserve),  2  supply  officers,  1  transport  officer,  1 
chaplain,  6  noncommissioned  officers,  and  132  privates,  hospital 
corps ;  and  4  noncommissioned  officers  and  58  privates,  train  troops ; 
total,  10  officers  and  194  enlisted  men.  Transportation  comprises  14 
riding  horses,  59  draft  animals,  11  ambulances,  9  wagons,  and  1 
rolling  kitchen. 

CAVALRY  AMBULANCES. 

Personnel:  3  medical  officers,  1  supply  officer,  1  chaplain,  8  pri- 
vates, hospital  corps;  9  privates,  train  troops;  4  officers'  orderlies. 

Transportation :  5  riding  horses,  14  draft  animals,  2  carts,  and  6 
ambulances. 

CORPS  BEARER  COMPANIES, 

These  companies  are  similar  to  division  bearer  companies  but  are 
larger.  Their  personnel  comprises  9  medical  officers  (C  being  war- 
rant officers  from  the  reserve) ,  2  supply  officers,  1  transport  officer,  1 
veterinarian,  4  chaplains,  14  noncommissioned  officers,  and  205  pri- 
vates, hospital  corps;  5  noncommissioned  officers  and  73  privates, 
train  troops;  and  5  officers'  orderlies;  total,  17  officers  and  298  en- 
listed men. 

Transportation  consists  of  19  riding  horses,  79  draft  animals,  11 
ambulances  and  17  wagons,  and  1  rolling  kitchen. 

Q38 


21 

LINES  OF   COMMUNICATION. 

The  French  system  of  medical  service  contemplates  rapid  evacua- 
tion of  wounded  from  the  zone  of  combat  to  the  zone  of  the  interior. 
For  this  reason  temporary  hospitals  (evacuation  hospitals)  are  estab- 
lished at  the  head  of  the  lines  of  communication  and  wounded  evac- 
uated directly  from  the  front  into  these  hospitals. 

EVACUATION  HOSPITALS. 

These  hospitals  are  established  at  the  railhead  in  the  proportion 
of  one  to  each  corps.  Their  personnel  comprises  8  medical  officers, 
2  pharmacists,  2  quartermasters,  12  noncommissioned  officers,  and  40 
privates,  hospital  corps.  Their  equipment  consists  of  200  litters 
which  are  used  as  beds.  Medical  and  surgical  supplies  and  cookery 
utensils  are  secured  from  the  medical  advanced  supply  depot. 

AUXILIARY  CONVOYS. 

When  occasion  demands  all  wagons  and  personnel  of  the  train 
troops  under  the  commander  of  the  line  of  communications  are,  upon 
request  of  the  principal  medical  officer,  organized  into  an  auxiliary 
convoy  and  placed  under  his  direction  for  use  in  quickly  evacuating 
the  wounded  from  the  field  units.  These  convoys  consist  of  720 
wagons  in  four  sections  of  180  wagons  each. 

MOTOR  AMBULANCE  SECTIONS. 

Recently  motor  ambulance  sections  have  been  organized  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  to  each  corps.  They  are  employed  in  the  daily  evacua- 
tion of  the  sick  from  the  front  to  the  railhead  and  in  talking  up  sani- 
tary materiel  to  replace  that  expended  at  the  front.  These  sections 
are  composed  of  from  18  to  24  motor  cars,  one  of  which  is  a  repair 
car.  Recommendation  has  recently  been  made  that  the  number  of 
these  motor  ambulances  be  increased  to  60.  The  carrying  capacity 
is  about  120  patients,  40  recumbent  and  80  sitting  up. 

RESERVE   MEDICAL  PERSONNEL. 

Detachments  of  reserve  medical  personnel  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing improvised  hospitals  are  maintained  in  the  proportion  of  4 
to  each  corps.  These  detachments  consist  of  1  medical  officer  phar- 
macist, 1  quartermaster,  1  warrant  medical  officer,  5  noncommissioned 
officers,  and  39  privates  of  the  hospital  corps.  Recent  recommenda- 
tions of  a  committee  appointed  to  investigate  the  French  medical 

633 


service  include  one  to  the  effect  that  special  surgical  units  similar  to 
the  surgical  units  in  the  Austrian  service  be  organized  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  to  each  corps,  their  duties  being  to  perform  the  most 
serious  surgical  work. 

HOSPITAL  TRAINS. 

Hospital  trains  are  largely  used  for  carrying  patients  direct  from 
the  zone  of  advance  to  the  zone  of  the  interior,  and  in  this  latter  the 
permanent  hospitals  are  established.  Five  of  these  trains  were  main- 
tained in  time  of  peace.  They  were  prepared  by  the  railway  com- 
panies who  maintain  and  use  them  for  ordinary  traffic.  The  cars 
were  specially  constructed  for  conversion  into  hospital  cars  whenever 
the  order  for  mobilization  is  given.  The  railway  companies  keep 
ready  all  the  necessary  fittings  for  the  conversion  of  these  cars,  while 
the  army  medical  department  keeps  ready  in  its  storehouses  addi- 
tional materiel  necessary  for  forming  complete  rolling  hospitals. 
Two  hundred  and  fifty  such  hospital  trains,  with  a  carrying  capacity 
of  100,000  patients,  are  at  present  in  use  in  France. 

ZONE  OF  THE  INTERIOR. 

France  has  in  time  of  peace  40  military  hospitals  with  a  capacity 
of  10,192  patients,  and  there  are  many  large  civil  hospitals  available 
for  military  use.  In  addition  to  these,  however,  France  has  found  it 
necessary  to  establish  5,000  territorial  hospitals  with  a  total  bed  capa- 
city of  600,000  patients.  The  personnel  of  all  these  permanent  hos- 
pitals and  for  most  of  the  work  on  lines  of  communication  has  been 
obtained  from  the  reserves  and  from  voluntary  aid  societies. 

III.  GERMANY. 

There  are  two  main  divisions  of  the  military  service  in  Germany — 
(a)  regular  service;  (b)  service  in  the  "Landsturm." 

All  males  between  the  ages  of  17  and  45  are  required  to  perform 
service  in  one  or  the  other  of  these  main  divisions. 

Men  selected  for  the  regular  service  serve  7  years  with  the  stand- 
ing army  (3  with  the  colors  and  4  in  the  reserve) ,  and  are  then  passed 
into  the  "  Landwehr,"  where  they  continue  service  until  their  thirty- 
ninth  year.  Service  from  the  thirty-ninth  to  the  forty-fifth  year  is  in 
the  "  Landsturm." 

Men  who  for  any  reason  are  not  required  to  serve  in  the  standing 
army  are  placed  in  the  "  Ersatz  "  reserve  (special  reserve)  for  12 
years,  and  then  passed  to  the  Landsturm. 

Men  of  good  education  who  clothe  and  feed  themselves  during  their 
service  are  known  as"  Einjahrige  Freiwillige  "  (one-year  volunteers), 
stt 


23 

and  are  passed  into  the  reserve  of  the  standing  army  after  one  year  of 
service  with  the  colors. 

The  Landsturm  is  composed  of  (a)  men  between  the  ages  of  17 
and  20;  (h)  those  between  the  ages  of  39  and  45;  (c)  men  from  the 
Ersatz  reserve;  and  (d)  men  who  are  for  some  reason  exempt  from 
regular  service. 

THE  STANDING  ARMY. 

The  standing  army,  as  organized  in  peace,  consists  of  25  army 
corps  and  1  cavalry  division,  besides  special  troops,  schools,  etc. 
(Total  strength,  budget,  1912,  644,267  officers  and  men.) 

These  corps  are  distributed,  19  in  Prussia,  2  in  Saxony,  1  in  Wurt- 
temberg,  and  3  in  Bavaria.  Each  of  these  independent  kingdoms  has 
its  own  war  office  and  administers  its  own  army,  but,  combined,  they 
form  the  army  of  the  German  Empire. 

GENERAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  MEDICAL  SERVICE. 

The  Sanitats  Korps. — The  army  medical  department  is  called  the 
Sanitats  Korps  and  is  composed  of  the  following  elements:  (a)  " The 
Sanitats  offizier  korps  "  or  corps  of  medical  officers  (Prussia,  Saxony, 
and  Bavaria  each  have  a  separate  corps  of  this  character)  ;  {b)  the 
"Sanitats  offizier  diensttuer";  {c)  the  "Sanitats  mannschaft";  {d) 
the  "  Militarkranenwarter  " ;  {e)  "  Krankentrager  " ;  (/)  apothecary 
officials;  {g)  quartermaster  officials ;  {h)  army  nursing  sisters. 

The  Sanitats  Offizier  Korps. — This  is  a  corps  of  commissioned 
medical  officers.    The  titles,  rank,  and  number  of  these  officers  are : 


Title. 

Rank. 

Number. 

General  stabsarzt                                                                     

Lieutenant  general 

1 

4 

General  arzt                                                                                        

Colonel 

25 

Lieutenant  colonel 

Major 

60 

Oberstabsarzt                    ...                ....         

494 

Stabsarzt 

Captain 

640 

Assistenarzt            

Lieutenant 

1,143 

Total        

2,367 

THE    SANITATS    OFFIZIER    DIENSTTUER. 

This  is  an  auxiliary  corps  to  the  corps  of  permanent  medical 
officers  and  is  a  most  important  element  in  the  German  medical 
service.  It  is  composed  of  («)  medical  men  who  are  doing  their 
service  with  the  colors  as  one-year  volunteers  and  who  are  appointed 
to  junior  positions  in  the  medical  corps  (Oberarzt  or  Assistenarzt) 
and  (6)  medical  students  who  have  practically  completed  their 
medical  studies  and  are  doing  their  regular  military  service.  These 
latter  serve  with  the  medical  corps  as  warrant  officers  (Unterarzte). 

638 


24 

The  presence  of  these  men  in  subordinate  positions  permits  the 
maintenance  of  a  permanent  commissioned  medical  personnel  very 
much  smaller  than  would  otherwise  be  required  and  provides  a  large 
supply  of  reserve  medical  officers  for  war. 

THE  SANITATS  MANN8CHAFT. 

The  Sanitats  Mannschaft  is  recruited  entirely  from  men  in  the 
combatant  units  of  all  arms  who  have  completed  one  year  of  service 
with  their  unit.  They  may  be  either  men  who  have  volunteered  for 
service  in  the  medical  corps  or  men  who  have  been  transferred  to 
that  corps  by  command.  After  being  transferred  these  men  are  sent 
for  a  six  months'  tour  of  instruction  to  the  largest  garrison  hospital 
in  the  district  where  they  are  serving.  While  serving  at  these  hos- 
pitals they  are  given  a  graded  course  of  instruction  in  all  the  duties 
of  sanitary  soldiers.  Upon  completion  of  the  course  each  man  is 
examined  and  if  found  proficient  is  returned  to  his  original  organi- 
zation for  duty  with  the  medical  service  thereof.  Noncommissioned 
officers  of  the  Sanitats  Mannschaft  are  not  all  returned  to  their  units 
but  many  continue  their  service  in  various  military  hospitals. 

The  various  ranks  in  the  Sanitats  Mannschaft  are :  Sanitats  Feld- 
webel  (sergeant  major),  Sanitats  Yize  Feldwebel  (quartermaster 
sergeant),  Sanitats  Sergeant  (sergeant),  Sanitats  Unteroffizier 
(corporal),  Sanitats  Gefreiter  (lance  corporal),  Sanitats  Soldat 
(private). 

THE  MILITAR  KRANKENWARTER. 

These  men  are  enlisted  directly  into  the  medical  corps  and  perform 
the  whole  of  their  service  with  the  colors  as  hospital  attendants  in 
the  larger  military  hospitals.  The  number  of  men  in  this  class  is 
determined  by  the  hospital  requirements  of  each  army  corps  accord- 
ing to  estimates  prepared  yearly  by  the  principal  medical  officer 
thereof. 

THE  KRANKENTRAGER   ( LITTER  BEARERS ). 

Litter  bearers  for  the  army  are  not  incorporated  into  the  army 
medical  service.  Every  combatant  unit  trains  a  certain  number  of  its 
personnel  in  the  duties  of  litter  bearers.  Each  company  of  infantry, 
cavalry,  foot  artillery,  and  engineers  trains  annually  four  men,  and 
each  machine-gun  battery  and  field  artillery  battery  trains  annually 
two  men  in  these  duties.  Upon  mobilization  men  so  trained  are 
assigned  exclusively  to  bearer  duty  with  their  organizations,  and 
men  so  trained  who  have  passed  into  the  reserve  are,  upon  mobiliza- 
tion, assigned  to  duty  with  bearer  companies  in  the  medical  battalion. 

533 


25 

APOTHECARIES  AND  QUARTERMASTERS, 

The  duties  required  of  apothecaries  and  quartermasters  are  per- 
formed by  men  belonging  to  the  class  known  as  military  officials. 
They  are  not  commissioned  officers,  although  those  in  the  higher 
grades  have  military  titles. 

ADMINISTRATION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PERSONNEL. 

The  general  administration  of  the  medical  department  is  under 
the  Director  General  of  Medical  Services,  with  rank  of  Lieutenant 
Xreneral  and  stationed  in  the  war  office  in  Berlin.  His  personal  staff 
consists  of  1  colonel,  3  majors,  and  3  captains,  medical  corps. 
Directly  under  him  are  4  "  General  Arzte  und  Sanitats  Inspecteurs," 
with  rank  of  major  general.  One  of  these  officers  is  assigned  to  duty 
with  each  of  the  four  military  districts  into  which  the  Prussian 
Army  is  divided.  Their  duties  are  the  general  inspection  of  medical 
and  sanitary  matters  in  their  districts.  Each  has  one  captain,  medi- 
cal corps,  as  assistant. 

At  each  army  corps  headquarters  is  a  "  Korps  Arzt,"  with  rank  of 
colonel.  He  is  in  charge  of  all  medical  matters  pertaining  not  only 
to  the  active  army  but  also  to  the  reserve,  Landwehr,  Landsturm,  and 
voluntary  aid  societies  within  his  corps.  His  assistants  are  1  captain, 
1  apothecary,  and  2  clerks,  medical  corps. 

Each  division  has  a  "Division  Arzt,"  with  rank  of  lieutenant 
colonel  as  principal  medical  officer  of  the  division. 

Medical  officers  are  distributed  in  each  corps  for  duty  with  troops 
or  at  garrison  hospitals.  Forty-five  medical  officers  are  on  duty  as 
professors  and  instructors  in  the  army  medical  school  in  Berlin. 

Medical  service  is  provided  in  regimental  infirmaries  and  garrison 
hospitals.  A  garrison  hospital  is  established  in  all  garrisons  having 
a  strength  of  600  or  more  men. 

Each  combatant  unit  has  a  fixed  medical  personnel.  A  major, 
medical  corps,  is  attached  to  the  staff  of  each  regiment  and  a 
captain,  medical  corps,  to  each  battalion.  In  addition  to  the  regular 
officers  there  are  also  attached  a  number  of  subaltern  officers  from 
the  Diensttner.  In  many  garrisons  a  retired  medical  officer  is  on 
duty  as  garrison  surgeon  for  attendance  on  officers'  families  and 
officials  not  belonging  to  combatant  units. 

The  enlisted  medical  personnel  comprises  one  noncommissioned 
officer  and  one  private  of  the  Sanitatsmannschaft  with  each  company 
and  the  litter  bearers  mentioned  above. 

The  junior  medical  officers  for  duty  with  garrison  hospitals  are 
derived  from  those  detailed  for  such  service  from  the  regiment  to 
which  they  are  attached.  Such  details  are  for  a  period  of  one  year, 
'—No.  533—16 1 


26 

The  enlisted  personnel  for  hospitals  is  derived  from  members  of  the 
Sanitatsmannschaft  and  from  Militar  Krankenwarter. 

WAR  ORGANIZATION. 

The  general  direction  of  the  medical  services  in  time  of  war  is 
under  a  "  Chef  des  Feld — Sanitats  wesens,"  with  rank  of  lieutenant 
general,  who  belongs  to  the  staff  of  the  Imperial  Headquarters. 

On  the  headquarters  staff  of  each  field  army  is  the  "  Armee-arzt" 
with  rank  of  major  general.  His  personal  staff  consists  of  two  Ober 
arzt  and  one  Stabsarzt.  On  the  staff  of  each  army  corps  commander 
is  a  "Korpsarzt"  (colonel),  with  two  assistants  (one  as  major  and 
sanitary  officer). 

In  addition  to  the  regular  medical  officers  at  army  corps  head- 
quarters there  is  one  "  consulting  surgeon  "  with  the  rank  of  colonel, 
lieutenant  colonel,  or  major.  This  consulting  surgeon  is  appointed 
by  the  Emperor,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Director  General  of 
Medical  Services,  from  amongst  civil  surgeons  of  eminence. 

On  the  staff  of  each  division  commander  is  the  "Division  arzt" 
(lieutenant  colonel),  with  one  assistant. 

The  Director  of  the  Medical  Services  on  lines  of  communication  is 
an  important  position  in  the  German  service.  There  is  one  such 
official  to  each  field  army,  and  he  is  known  as  the  "  Etappenarzt," 
with  rank  of  colonel.  Under  his  direction  are  the  "  Krieglazaretten 
directoren"  (directors  of  hospitals),  one  to  each  corps  of  which  the 
field  army  is  composed,  and  a  "  consulting  sanitary  officer,"  appointed 
from  among  eminent  civilian  physicians  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
consulting  surgeon  is  appointed  at  corps  headquarters. 

MEDICAL  PERSONNEL  WITH   COMBATANT  ORGANIZATIONS. 

There  are  2  medical  officers,  4  men  from  the  Sanitatsmannschaft, 
and  16  litter  bearers  with  each  battalion  of  infantry  or  similar  units. 
The  litter  bears,  while  belonging  to  the  combatant  units,  are  carried 
on  the  rolls  of  their  organizations  as  noncombatants  and  therefore 
wear  the  Red  Cross  crosses.  They  are,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  a 
part  of  the  medical  organization. 

SANITATS    BATAILLON. 

One  "  sanitats  bataillon  "  is  attached  to  each  corps.  This  unit  is 
analogous  to  the  sanitary  train  in  our  service  and  comprises  3 
bearer  companies  and  12  field  hospitals.  It  is  commanded  by  a 
major  of  the  line,  with  an  adjutant  and  a  detachment  of  enlisted 
men,  also  from  the  line.  The  commanding  officer  of  the  battalion 
directs  its  movement  and  the  movement  of  the  xmits  of  which  it  is 

6S8 


27 

composed.  He  does  not,  however,  control  the  administration  of 
the  field  hospitals  belonging  to  the  battalion ;  these  being  under  the 
direction  of  the  senior  medical  officer. 

Similarly,  too,  a  divided  authority  exists  in  the  bearer  companies. 
These  organizations  are  commanded  by  line  officers  and  their  enlisted 
personnel  is  obtained  from  reserve  soldiers  of  the  line,  but  accompany- 
ing each  bearer  company  is  a  dressing-station  section  composed  of 
eight  medical  officers  who,  while  nominally  attached  to  the  bearer  com- 
panies, are  not  under  the  authority  of  its  commander.  They  are, 
however,  dependent  upon  him  for  the  enlisted  personnel  necessary 
to  assist  in  the  work  of  the  dressing  station.  This  divided  authority 
in  the  German  field  medical  units  somewhat  impairs  their  efficiency 
and  has  proven  a  frequent  source  of  friction. 

The  personnel  of  each  bearer  company  is  4  officers,  36  noncom- 
missioned officers,  and  208  privates  from  the  line ;  4  noncommisioned 
officers  and  28  privates  from  train  troops;  and  1  officer,  9  noncom- 
missioned officers,  and  8  privates  from  the  medical  corps,  composing 
the  bearer  company  proper;  and  8  medical  officers  composing  the 
dressing-station  section.  Total,  13  officers,  49  noncommissioned  offi- 
cers, and  244  privates. 

The  transportation  consists  of  21  riding  horses,  26  draft  animals, 
8  ambulances,  and  5  wagons. 

FIELD   HOSPITALS. 

The  general  direction  of  field  hospitals  is  under  the  Korps  Arzt, 
who  controls  their  disposition  by  orders  issued  through  the  corps 
commander.  Each  field  hospital  has  a  capacity  of  200  patients  and 
is  capable  of  expansion.  Its  personnel  comprises  6  medical  officers, 
1  apothecary,  2  quartermasters,  11  noncommissioned  officers,  and  17 
privates,  medical  corps;  and  2  noncommissioned  officers  and  19 
privates,  train  troops.  Total,  6  officers,  3  officials,  13  noncommis- 
sioned officers,  and  36  privates. 

The  transportation  consists  of  9  riding  horses,  18  draft  animals,  1 
ambulance,  and  8  wagons. 

LINES  OF   COMMUNICATION. 

The  service  at  the  head  of  a  line  of  communication  is  slightly  dif- 
ferent from  that  in  other  armies.  For  the  care  of  wounded  two  dis- 
tinct units  are  organized  in  the  proportion  of  1  of  each  to  each  corps. 
These  units  are  a  "  war  hospital  detachment "  and  a  "  wounde  dtrans- 
port  detachment."  These  two  units  combined  perform  the  work  of 
the  evacuation  hospitals  in  our  service,  but  they  are  more  mobile  and 
operate  independently. 

533 


28 

The  function  of  the  war  hospital  detachments  is  to  take  over  from 
the  field  hospitals  such  wounded  as  can  not  bear  further  transporta- 
tion.   In  other  words,  they  become  immobilized  field  hospitals. 

Their  personnel  consists  of  19  medical  officers,  1  dentist,  3  apothe- 
caries, and  6  quartermaster  officials,  3  clerks,  3  cooks,  27  noncom- 
missioned officers,  and  36  privates,  medical  corps ;  and  26  privates  of 
train  troop.    Total,  19  officers,  10  officials,  and  95  enlisted  men. 

These  units  have  no  authorized  equipment,  but  obtain  it  from  the 
field  hospitals  they  relieve  (which  in  turn  are  replenished  from  the 
advanced  medical-supply  depot)  or  from  local  resources. 

The  wounded  transport  detachment  also  has  no  fixed  equipment, 
but  obtains  it  as  needed  from  local  sources  or  from  the  medical- 
supply  depot.  Its  personnel  comprises  7  medical  officers,  6  noncom- 
missioned officers,  and  6  privates,  medical  corps ;  and  8  privates  from 
train  troops. 

The  duties  of  these  detachments  are  to  establish  dressing  and  re- 
freshment stations  at  the  railhead  or  other  points  where  large  num- 
bers of  wounded  are  being  brought  for  disposition.  At  the  dressing 
or  collecting  station  the  wounded  are  classified,  and  those  able  to 
bear  transportation  are  turned  over  to  the  hospital  trains.  Those 
not  able  to  bear  railroad  transportation  are  sent  to  the  nearest  hos- 
pital. For  this  latter  purpose  all  available  transportation  in  the 
vicinity,  including  army  transportation,  is  utilized  by  these  detach- 
ments. 

Both  the  war  hospital  detachments  and  the  wounded  transport 
detachments  are  under  the  direction  of  the  Etappenarzt  and  form 
freely  movable  units  of  personnel,  which  can  be  utilized  to  establish 
hospitals  and  collecting  stations  at  the  most  convenient  places. 

Like  the  other  European  nations,  Germany  has  largely  employed 
motor  ambulances  for  evacuating  wounded  from  the  front.  No  de- 
tails of  the  organization  of  this  service  are  available. 

Outside  of  the  zone  of  advance  Germany  makes  free  use  of  her 
civilian  population  and  voluntary  aid  societies.  At  frequent  inter- 
vals along  the  line  she  establishes  base  hospitals.  The  command  of 
these  hospitals  is  always  given  to  a  regular  medical  officer  of  the 
active  or  retired  list,  but  the  routine  hospital  work  is  done  by  local 
civil  practitioners. 

If  no  regular  medical  officer  is  available  to  command  such  a  hos- 
pital, the  control  is  placed  under  a  "  hospital  committee  "  consisting 
of  a  line  officer  and  a  civil  surgeon.  A  similar  arrangement  is  in 
effect  in  the  home  territory,  where  each  garrison  hospital  is  sup- 
plemented and  used  as  a  "reserve  hospital"  (general  hospital). 
Eminent  physicians  and  surgeons  from  civil  life  are  employed  in 
these  hospitals. 

638 


29 

HOSPITAL  TRAINS. 

Germany  has  in  service  150  regularly  equipped  hospital  trains. 
The  capacity  of  these  trains  is  about  250  patients  each,  and  they 
are  complete  rolling  hospitals  with  a  fixed  medical  personnel. 

In  addition  to  these  hospital  trains  she  uses  ambulance  trains 
consisting  of  cars  returning  from  the  front  and  temporarily  equipped 
for  patients  by  supplies  kept  for  that  purpose  at  the  advanced  supply 
depots.  These  trains  have  no  fixed  personnel,  but  as  a  rule  are  pro- 
vided with  two  medical  officers,  two  noncommissioned  officers,  and 
12  attendants  for  each  100  patients.  Ordinary  passenger  coaches  are 
also  utilized  for  carrying  wounded  not  requiring  more  elaborate 
transportation.  Medical  officers  do  not  accompany  these  trains,  but 
they  supervise  the  loading  and  unloading.  Attendance  en  route  is 
furnished  by  voluntary  aid  societies. 

HOME   TERRITORY. 

All  garrison  hospitals  in  time  of  war  become  "  reserve  hospitals  " 
(general  hospitals) .  The  capacity  of  these  hospitals  is  increased  by 
erecting  additional  buildings  and  by  utilizing  other  buildings  as 
branch  hospitals.  Eegular  army  medical  officers  are  always  in  com- 
mand of  these  hospitals,  but  civil  surgeons  are  largely  utilized  for 
the  personnel. 

As  with  other  European  nations  the  greater  part  of  Germany's 
wounded  are  promptly  transported  to  well-equipped  hospitals  in 
home  territory. 

IV.  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

The  military  service  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire  is  divided 
into — {a)  the  Landwehr,  or  national  army  of  Austria;  (&)  the 
Honved,  or  national  army  of  Hungary;  (c)  the  Gemeinsames  Heer, 
or  common  army  of  both  countries;  {d)  the  Landsturm,  or  second 
reserve  of  Austria  and  Hungary. 

All  males  between  the  ages  of  19  and  42  are  liable  to  military 
service,  and  it  is  decided  by  lot  whether  such  service  will  be  in  a 
national  army  or  in  the  common  army.  Actual  service  begins  at  the 
age  of  21  and  lasts  for  12  years. 

Men  drawing  assignment  to  the  common  army  serve  three  years 
with  the  colors  and  seven  years  in  the  reserve  of  that  army.  They 
then  serve  an  additional  two  years  in  the  reserve  of  a  national  army, 
and  at  the  expiration  of  this  service  pass  to  the  Landsturm,  where 
they  are  available  to  call  until  they  reach  the  age  of  45. 

Men  drawing  assignment  to  a  national  army  serve  two  years  with 
the  colors  of  that  army  and  ten  years  in  its  reserve.  They  then  pass 
to  the  Landsturm. 

533 


30 

Men  not  required  to  keep  up  the  standing  armies  to  required 
strength  are  given  eight  weeks'  training  and  then  passed  into  the 
Ersatz  reserve. 

All  men  between  the  ages  of  19  and  21  and  those  men  who  have 
completed  service  in  one  or  the  other  of  the  armies  form  until  their 
forty-second  year  the  Landsturm  or  second  reserve. 

The  peace  strength  of  the  three  armies  is : 

Officers  and  men : 

Common  army 370,  725 

Austrian  Army 55, 195 

Hungarian  Army 42,  800 

Total 468,  720 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  MEDICAL  SERVICE. 

The  medical   service  is  composed   of  the  following  elements: 

(a)  The  Militar  arzliches  Offiziers  Korp  (medical  officers'  corps) ; 

(b)  the  Sanitats  triippe  (hospital  corps,  officers  and  men) ;  (c)  the 
"  Sanitats  hilf personnel  bei  den  triippen  "  (men  belonging  to  com- 
batant units  but  employed  in  the  medical  service  with  those  units) ; 
(d)  medicamenten  beamte  (medical  officials,  pharmacists,  and  supply 
officers);   (e)  nursing  sisters;   (/)  voluntary  aid  personnel. 

THE  MILITAR  ARZLICHES  OFFICERS'  KORP. 

Each  army  has  a  separate  corps  of  commissioned  medical  officers. 
The  titles,  rank,  and  numbers  in  these  corps  are ; 


Rank. 

Number. 

Common 
Army. 

Land- 
wehr. 

Honved. 

Total. 

Generaloberstabsarzt 

Lieutenant  General . . . 
Major  General 

1 

8 

50 

75 

154 

711 

229 

1 

Generalstabsarzt 

1 

6 
15 
19 
152 
10 

1 
8 
10 
22 
122 
15 

10 

Oberstabsarzt,  first  klasse.   . 

Colonel 

64 

Oberstabsarzt,  second  klasse 

Lieutenant  colonel 

Major 

100 

Stabsarzt 

195 

Regimentsarzt 

985 

Oberarzt 

254 

Total 

1,228 

203 

178 

1.609 

' 

THE    SANITATS    TRUPPE. 


This  corps,  while  organized  as  a  distinct  corps,  is  in  fact  a  sub- 
ordinate part  of  the  medical  officers'  corps,  being  somewhat  similar 
to  the  Hospital  Corps  in  our  service.  The  officers  are  not  medical 
men  and  have  no  medical  training.  They  are  line  officers  and  are 
commissioned  directly  into  the  corps  in  the  same  way  that  officers 

533 


31 

are  commissioned  into  the  combatant  branches  of  the  army.  They 
may  subsequently  exchange  with  officers  of  combatant  units,  and 
officers  of  combatant  units  may  exchange  with  officers  of  this  corps, 
especially  if  they  are  unfit,  for  medical  reasons,  for  combatant  duties. 

The  officers  of  this  corps  are  in  direct  command  of  the  detachments 
of  enlisted  personnel  and  have  the  relative  position  of  company 
officers.  Their  duties  consist  in  regulating  the  discipline  and  internal 
economy  of  the  detachment  and  training  its  members  in  military 
duties.  They  are,  however,  under  the  command  of  the  senior  medical 
officer  of  the  hospital  to  which  they  are  attached.  In  other  words, 
the  senior  medical  officer  of  the  hospital  commands  the  whole  imit, 
including  all  personnel,  medical  or  otherwise,  who  are  on  duty 
with  it,  and  all  officers  and  men  who  are  patients  in  it;  while  the 
sanitats  truppe  detachment  commander  commands  the  detachment 
only. 

The  enlisted  personnel  consists  of  warrant  officers,  noncommis- 
sioned officers  and  privates.  They  are  recruited  directly  into  the 
corps  on  the  levying  of  each  aimual  contingent  and  are  organized 
into  companies  or  detachments,  one  for  each  garrison  hospital. 
There  are  27  of  these  detachments,  varying  in  strength  according 
to  the  size  and  importance  of  the  garrison  hospital  to  which  assigned. 
The  largest  detachment  consists  of  5  officers  and  270  men,  and  the 
smallest  of  3  officers  and  58  men.  The  total  peace  strength  of  the 
corps  is  85  officers  and  3,062  men. 

The  duties  of  these  detachments  are  those  of  the  subordinate 
personnel  of  military  hospitals,  e.  g.,  ward  masters,  nursing,  cooking, 
and  general  duties.  None  of  the  officers  and  men  of  the  "  sanitats 
truppe  "  do  duty  with  combatant  units,  but  in  the  event  of  war  they 
are  distributed  among  the  field  sanitary  units. 

SANITATS    HILFSPERSONAL    BEI    DEN    TRUPPEN, 

This  division  of  the  medical  service  consists  of  noncommissioned 
officers  and  men  who  belong  to  combatant  units  and  who  wear  the 
uniform  of  their  organizations.  They  are,  however,  permanently 
under  the  command  of  medical  officers  and  perform  only  medical 
duties. 

They  are  of  three  classes:  (a)  Medical  assistants  (Sanitats  unter 
offizieres) ;  (h)  litter  bearers  (Blassierten  trager) ;  (c)  carriers, 
for  medical  and  surgical  equipment  (Banda  gen  trager). 

Medical  assistants  are  noncommissioned  officers  and  number,  in 
peace,  1  per  battalion,  and,  in  time  of  war,  1  per  company,  or 
similar  unit.  They  perform  the  duties  of  ward  masters  in  regi- 
mental hospitals. 

533 


32 

Litter  hearers  (4  to  each  compajiy)  are  trained  in  time  of  peace 
as  such,  and  in  addition  perform  all  the  medical  duties  which,  in 
garrison  hospitals,  are  performed  by  men  in  the  sanitats  truppe. 

Carriers  of  equipment  (2  to  each  battalion  or  similar  unit). — These 
men  have  general  charge  of  the  regimental  medical  equipment  and 
carry  it  when  on  the  march. 

PHARMACISTS   AND  SUPPLY  OFFICIALS. 

These  men  form  a  special  branch  of  the  medical  service,  both  in 
the  common  army  and  the  Hungarian  Army.  They  have  charge  of 
all  the  medical  and  surgical  stores  in  time  of  peace,  and  are  assisted 
by  a  small  technical  personnel  as  well  as  by  men  of  the  medical  corps. 

The  number  of  pharmacist  officials  in  time  of  peace  is  108,  with 
relative  rank  varying  from  lieutenant  colonel  to  second  lieutenant. 

NURSING    SISTERS. 

There  is  no  corps  of  female  nurses  provided  in  peace,  but  sisters 
of  the  order  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  are  employed  in  the  larger  gar- 
rison hospitals,  while  in  officers'  wards  lay  nurses  may  be  employed 
as  required. 

ADMINISTRATION  AND  DISTRIBUTION   OF  PERSONNEL. 

All  general  administration  of  the  medical  service  in  the  common 
army  is  performed  in  the  war  office  in  Vienna  by  the  fourteenth 
division  of  that  office.  This  division  is  under  the  direction  of  a  chief 
(lieutenant  general  or  major  general,  medical  officers'  corps)  with 
9  medical  officers,  1  supply  officer,  and  1  pharmacist  as  assistants. 
In  connection  with  this  bureau  are  two  auxiliary  bureaus,  one  under 
the  direction  of  a  colonel  of  the  line,  for  the  administration  of  the 
affairs  of  the  "  sanitats  truppe,"  and  one  under  the  direction  of  the 
senior  medical  officer,  for  administration  of  the  medical  officers' 
corps.  The  Landwehr  and  Honved  each  have  separate  administrative 
officers.  That  for  the  landwehr  is  under  the  direction  of  a  major  gen- 
eral, medical  officers'  corps,  at  Vienna,  and  that  for  the  Honved  is  in 
charge  of  a  similar  officer  at  Budapest.  Both,  however,  are  subordi- 
nate to  the  kriegs  ministerium. 

Each  army  corps  has  an  administrative  medical  officer  called  the 
"  Sanitats  chef."  His  rank  is  either  that  of  major  general  or  colonel. 
(There  are  no  brigadier  generals  in  the  Austro-Hungarian  Army.) 
He  has  permanently  one  major  and  several  captains  as  assistants. 
In  each  division  a  lieutenant  colonel,  usually  the  commanding  officer 
of  the  garrison  hospital,  is  appointed  to  carry  on  the  administrative 
medical  duties  within  the  division.    Each  Austrian  and  Hungarian 

688 


33 

territorial  command  has  a  colonel  or  lieutenant  colonel  as  Chief  Sur- 
geon (Sanitats  Chef). 

The  remaining  officers  of  the  medical  officers'  corps  are  distributed 
among  the  various  garrison  hospitals  and  other  establishments  or  are 
attached  to  regiments  for  regimental  medical  duties.  As  a  rule  junior 
medical  officers  serve  one  or  two  years  in  a  garrison  hospital  and 
then  are  assigned  to  regimental  duty,  where  they  remain  until  they 
reach  the  rank  of  major,  when  they  are  returned  to  duty  in  garrison 
hospitals  in  charge  of  the  various  departments  in  those  hospitals. 
There  are  no  specialist  sanitary  officers  as  there  are  in  the  British 
and  German  Armies.  All  sanitary  services  are  carried  out  regi- 
mentally  under  the  supervision  of  the  regimental  surgeon. 

The  sick  are  cared  for  in  regimental  infirmaries,  regimental  hospi- 
tals, and  garrison  hospitals.  At  the  regimental  infirmary  dispensary 
treatment  only  is  given.  Regimental  hospitals  correspond  to  post 
hospitals  and  their  personnel  is  supplied  from  the  regiment. 

Garrison  hospitals  are,  in  effect,  large  general  hospitals.  Their 
personnel  is  supplied  by  the  medical  officers'  corps,  and  the  sanitats 
truppe.  There  are  27  of  these  hospitals  for  the  "common  army." 
The  Landwehr  possesses  no  garrison  hospitals,  but  there  is  one  for 
the  Honved  in  Budapest. 

Garrison  hospitals  not  only  care  for  the  sick  but  serve  as  training 
schools  for  one-year  volunteer  medical  students  and  the  men  of  the 
sanitats  truppe.  In  addition,  they  maintain  a  reserve  store  of  medi- 
cal and  surgical  supplies  and  act  as  mobilization  centers  for  the  field 
medical  units.  Each  garrison  hospital  is  commanded  by  a  medical 
officer  with  rank  of  colonel  or  lieutenant  colonel,  with  a  large  staff 
of  medical  officers.  In  addition,  there  is  also  1  supply  officer,  1  pay- 
master, 1  pharmacist,  and  a  detachment  of  the  sanitats  truppe. 

WAR  ORGANIZATIONS. 

The  Austro-Hungarian  Army  in  war  time  is  not  divided  into  three 
forces  as  in  peace,  but  forms  one  army  composed  of  all  three  ele- 
ments. The  administrative  unit  is  the  field  army,  consisting  of  from 
two  to  four  corps,  and  these  in  turn  of  usually  three  divisions.  Two 
of  these  divisions  are  drawn  from  the  common  army,  and  the  third 
from  the  Landwehr  or  Honved,  or  from  the  reserves  of  the  first  line. 

In  the  field  each  Headquarters  Staff  of  each  field  army,  corps, 
division,  and  independent  brigade  has  attached  to  it  a  Chief  Medical 
Officer  with  one  or  more  assistants.  These  officers  are  administrative 
officers  for  the  medical  service  of  their  respective  commands  and 
receive  their  orders  and  instructions  from  the  general  officer  com- 
manding either  direct  or  through  his  chief  of  staff.    They  are  em- 

533 


34 

powered  to  issue  orders  direct  to  the  medical  units  of  their  command ; 
but  orders  directing  a  change  of  position  on  the  march  or  in  combat 
must  be  concurred  in  by  the  chief  of  staff. 

The  Chief  Medical  Officer  of  a  field  army  is  the  "Armee-Chef- 
Arzt,"  with  rank  of  major  general.  He  has  one  regiments-arzt  as 
assistant.  There  is  an  administrative  medical  officer  also  on  the  staff 
of  the  general  commanding  the  lines  of  communication.  His  official 
title  is  "  Sanitats  Chef  beim  armee  etappen-kommands."  He  has  a 
staff  of  assistants  consisting  of  1  regiments-arzt,  and  4  delegates,  4 
assistant  delegates,  and  1  clerk  from  the  Red  Cross  Society.  (In  the 
Austro-Hungarian  Army,  volunteer  aid  is  intimately  associated  with 
the  army  medical  service.) 

Each  army  corps  has  a  Korps-Chef-Arzt  with  rank  of  colonel.  He 
has  a  regiments-arzt  as  assistant,  and  a  delegate  from  the  Red  Cross 
Society  is  also  with  him  in  the  field. 

The  chief  medical  officer  of  the  division  is  the  "  Di  vision- Chef - 
Arzt"  with  rank  of  major.  He  has  no  commissioned  assistant,  but 
four  mounted  orderlies  are  assigned  to  him  for  duty. 

MEDICAL  SERVICE  IN  THE  ZONE  OF  ADVANCE. 

Medical  service  in  the  zone  of  advance  is  performed  by  the  regi- 
mental medical  service,  the  divisional  medical  unit  and  such  other 
medical  units,  e.  g.,  field  hospitals,  field  depots  for  slightly  sick, 
mobile  reserve  hospitals,  and  mobile  rest  stations,  as  may  be  assigned 
from  the  line  of  communications  to  the  various  divisions  and  corps. 

The  service  of  these  latter  medical  field  units  differs  from  the 
service  of  similar  units  in  other  armies,  inasmuch  as  they  are  not 
permanently  attached  to  divisions  and  corps,  but  are  field  army 
units,  and  the  Armee- Chef -Arzt  of  the  field  army  determines  the 
time,  occasion,  and  maimer  of  their  being  brought  up  and  distributed 
to  the  various  corps. 

REGIMENTAL   MEDICAL   SERVICE. 

The  regimental  medical  personnel  consists  of  officers  of  the  medi- 
cal officers'  corps  and  a  subordinate  personnel  consisting  of  noncom- 
missioned officers  and  privates  detailed  from  the  regiment  itself. 
The  general  principle  is  to  attach  one  medical  officer  to  each  bat- 
talion or  similar  unit  and  to  have  two  or  more  in  addition  with 
regimental  headquarters.  The  total  personnel  for  an  infantry  regi- 
ment consists  of  7  medical  officers,  16  medical  assistants,  48  litter 
bearers  and  6  pack  carriers  for  medical  supplies;  total,  7  officers 
and  70  men. 

533 


35 

THE  DIVISIONAL  MEDICAL  UNIT. 

One  of  these  units  is  a  part  of  each  division.  It  is  complex  in 
character  and  has  no  counterpart  in  the  medical  service  of  other 
armies.  It  is  intended  to  combine  the  functions  of  reserve  medical 
supply,  ambulance  transport  and  the  dressing-station  service.  It 
takes  the  place  of  the  divisional  sanitary  train  of  our  army,  except 
there  are  no  field  hospitals  and  no  litter-bearer  sections. 

The  personnel  of  the  infantry  divisional  unit  consists  of  6  officers 
of  the  medical  officers'  corps,  2  officers  and  125  men  of  the  sanitats 
truppe,  and  77  men  of  the  train  troops.  Its  transportation  consists 
of  145  horses  and  38  vehicles.  Each  unit  is  divided  into  the  follow- 
ing elements:  (a)  A  supply  section,  for  replenishing  supplies  ex- 
pended by  regimental  detachments;  (h)  a  slightly  wounded  section, 
to  establish  stations  for  slightly  wounded;  (c)  a  dressing-station  sec- 
tion, to  establish  dressing  stations;  (d)  an  ambulance  section,  con- 
sisting of  15  ambulances,  4  of  which  are  furnished  by  the  Teutonic 
Order  of  Knighthood. 

'divisional  units  for  cavalry  and  for  mountain  warfare  are  gener- 
ally similar  to  infantry  division  units,  but  with  less  personnel  and 
transportation. 

OTHER  MEDICAL  UNITS. 

In  support  of  the  regimental  detachments  and  the  divisional  med- 
ical units  there  are  the  mobile  units  belonging  to  the  field  army  and 
assigned  to  divisions  and  corps  as  the  need  may  arise.  These  units 
are  field  hospitals,  field  depots  for  slightly  sick,  mobile  reserve  hos- 
pitals, and  depots  of  medical  supplies.  Materiel  and  units  are  also 
provided  for  field  armies  by  volunteer  aid  societies  and  are  distrib- 
uted in  a  manner  peculiar  to  Austria-Hungary.  To  nearly  every 
medical  unit  of  the  regular  army  there  is  attached  a  supplemental 
unit  furnished  by  organized  volunteer  aid. 

FIELD  HOSPITALS. 

These  are  army  units,  but  are  mobilized  in  the  proportion  of  three 
to  each  division  of  which  the  army  is  composed.  Each  field  hospital 
has  a  capacity  of  200  bed  patients.  Its  personnel  consists  of  3 
medical  officers,  1  chaplain,  1  pharmacist,  1  officer  and  about  60 
men  of  the  hospital  corps,  and  about  40  men  of  the  train  troops.  It 
has  17  vehicles,  including  1  rolling  kitchen. 

Attached  to  each  field  hospital  is  a  wounded  transport  column  of 
the  Eed  Cross  Society.  This  column  is  equipped  with  five  two-horse 
ambulances  and  is  commanded  by  a  Red  Cross  Society's  delegate. 

538 


36 

LINES  OF  COMMUNICATION — MOBILE  RESERVE  HOSPITALS. 

These  hospitals  are  similar  in  purpose  to  the  evacuation  hospitals 
of  the  French  and  of  our  own  service.  They  are  provided  in  the 
proportion  of  six  to  each  corps,  and  each  accommodates  200  patients, 
with  possible  expansion.  They  are  similar  in  equipment  to  field  hos- 
pitals, but  have  no  transport  assigned  them,  being  required  to  obtain 
locally  vehicles  necessary  for  transportation  of  their  equipment. 
Three  of  these  hospitals  for  each  corps  are  organized  on  mobilization 
and  the  others  held  in  storage  in  the  advance  depot  until  needed. 

The  personnel  for  these  hospitals  is  obtained  from  the  reserve 
medical  personnel  held  on  lines  of  communication  and  is  similar  to 
that  of  field  hospitals. 

FIELD  DEPOTS  FOR  SLIGHTLY  SICK. 

Field  depots  for  slightly  sick  are  provided  in  the  proportion  of 
three  to  each  corps ;  one  is  usually  mobilized  and  two  held  in  storage. 
The  personnel  consists  of  2  medical  officers  and  1  officer  and  30  men 
of  the  army  medical  corps.  They  usually  take  care  of  about  500 
slightly  sick  and  wounded. 

REST  STATIONS, 

These  stations  are  either  mobile  or  stationary,  and  are  located 
where  required  on  lines  of  travel.  They  are  usually  under  the  charge 
of  civilian  personnel. 

FIELD  MEDICAL  SUPPLY  DEPOT. 

One  supply  depot  is  organized  for  each  field  army,  but  it  is  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  army  corps  units,  each  with  personnel  and 
materiel  enabling  it  to  be  attached  to  an  army  corps  and  act  as  an 
independent  unit.  These  corps  units,  in  addition  to  stores  for  re- 
plenishing medical  materiel  expended  in  the  field,  contain  reserve 
materiel  for  three  mobile  reserve  hospitals,  two  field  depots  for 
slightly  sick,  two  mobile  rest  stations,  and  materiel  for  improvising 
two  hospital  trains. 

HOSPITAL  TRAINS. 

Hospital  trains  are  constructed  out  of  ordinary  freight  trains  on 
mobilization.  The  personnel  of  a  hospital  train  is  2  medical  officers, 
1  pharmacist,  and  34  noncommissioned  officers  and  men  of  the  medi- 

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37 

cal  corps.     Six  specially  built  hospital  trains  were  maintained  in 
time  of  peace  by  the  Knights  of  the  Sovereign  Order  of  Malta. 

MOBILE  LABORATORIES. 

Twenty  complete  laboratories,  capable  of  being  moved  from  place 
to  place,  have  been  organized  and  are  in  use  in  the  sanitary  service 
on  lines  of  communication. 

SURGICAL  DETACHMENTS. 

Some  50  "  surgical  detachments "  have  been  organized  to  furnish 
the  operating  staff  of  corps  hospitals.  Each  detachment  consists  of 
two  or  three  eminent  civilian  surgeons  and  four  specially  trained 
surgical  nurses  and  is  furnished  with  adequate  surgical  instruments 
and  supplies. 

The  function  of  these  detachments  is  to  provide  a  freely  movable 
unit  of  expert  surgeons  which  may  be  readily  assigned  to  hospitals 
on  lines  of  communication  or  home  territory  when  their  services  are 
needed. 

ZONE   or   THE    INTERIOR. 

There  are  no  distinctive  features  of  the  medical  service  in  this 
zone.  Austria  utilizes  her  material  and  her  medical  personnel  in  the 
same  way  as  other  countries  in  Europe. 

V.  ITALY. 

PEACE    ESTABLISHMENT. 

Military  service  in  Italy  comprises  (a)  that  in  the  standing  army; 
(h)  that  in  the  mobile  militia;  and  (c)  that  in  the  territorial  militia. 

Every  adult  male  between  the  ages  of  20  and  39  years  is  liable  to 
service  in  one  of  these  branches. 

Examinations  are  made  annually  of  all  men  reaching  military  age, 
and  as  the  result  of  these  examinations  men  are  assigned  as  follows: 

{a)  A  sufficient  number  of  men  are  assigned  to  the  standing  army 
to  maintain  it  at  peace  strength.  Men  so  assigned  serve  two  years 
with  the  colors  and  are  then  placed  on  furlough  for  six  years.  At 
the  end  of  the  furlough  period  they  pass  into  the  mobile  militia,  or 
first  reserve,  where  they  serve  for  four  years.  At  the  end  of  this 
service  they  pass  to  the  territorial  militia,  or  second  reserve,  where 
they  remain  until  their  thirty-ninth  year. 

(h)  Men  physically  fit  but  in  excess  of  the  number  required  to  fill 
the  ranks  of  the  standing  army  are  not  required  to  do  service  with 
the  colors,  but  are  placed  immediately  upon  furlough  for  eight  years, 

533 


38 

at  the  end  of  which  period  they  pass  to  the  mobile  militia  and  terri- 
torial militia  in  the  same  way  as  do  men  who  have  served  with  the 
colors. 

(c)  Men  who  are  exempt  by  law  for  family  reasons  from  serving 
with  the  active  army  are  enlisted  directly  into  the  territorial  militia, 
where  they  remain  until  their  thirty-ninth  year. 

(d)  Men  specially  qualified  by  reason  of  education  and  position 
and  who  volunteer  for  service  are  allowed  to  serve  one  year  with  the 
colors  and  are  then  placed  on  permanent  furlough  as  underofficers,  or 
reserve  officers.  From  this  class  a  number  of  medical  officers  are 
drawn  in  time  of  war. 

The  standing  army  is  divided  into  12  army  corps,  each  with  a 
definite  territorial  area.  The  total  strength  of  this  army  (budget 
1912)  was  252,340. 

GENERAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  MEDICAL  SERVICE. 

The  medical  service  is  composed  of  the  following  elements:  (a) 
Officers  of  the  army  medical  corps;  (h)  pharmacist  officials;  (c)  ad- 
ministration and  other  officers  and  officials;  (d)  enlisted  men  belong- 
ing to  combatant  units;  (e)  enlisted  men  in  the  medical  corps;  (/) 
nursing  sisters. 

UFFICIALI  MEDICI  DI  CORPS  SANITARIO    (OFFICERS  OF  THE  MEDICAL  CORPS). 

Officers  of  the  medical  corps  are  divided  into  two  classes:  (a)  Those 
on  continuous  active  service  (ufficiali  medici  di  carriera) ;  (b)  those 
on  permanent  furlough  (ufficiali  medici  in  congedo). 

The  latter  are  in  turn  subdivided  into  four  classes : 

(a)  Ufficiali  medici  di  complemento. — These  are  a  kind  of  special 
reserve.  According  to  their  years  of  service,  they  may  be  on  per- 
manent furlough  from  the  standing  army  or  on  the  lists  of  the  mobile 
militia. 

{h)  Ufficiali  medici  di  milizia  territorials. — These  are  medical  men 
who  have  completed  their  service  in  the  mobile  militia  or  who  have 
been  passed  directly  into  the  territorial  militia. 

(c)  Auxiliary  medical  officers. — These  are  medical  officers  who 
have  been  relieved  from  the  active  army  but  are  capable  of  perform- 
ing special  duties. 

{d)  Reserve  medical  officers. — These  are  officers  di  complemento 
who  have  passed  the  age  of  39  years. 

In  these  four  classes  of  the  ufficiali  medici  in  congedo  Italy  is  able 
practically  to  have  her  whole  medical  profession  enrolled  for  war 
service. 

638 


39 


The  titles,  rank,  and  number  of  medical  officers  in  active  service  are ; 


Title. 


Rank. 


Number. 


Tenente  general^  medico. 
Maggiare  generale  medico . 

Colonells  medico 

Tenente  colonells  medico. . 

Maggiare  medico 

Capitano  medico 

Tenente  medico 


Lieutenant  general. 

Major  general 

Colonel. 

Lieutenant  colonel . 

Major 

Captain 

Lieutenant 


Total. 


1 
3 
26 
36 
113 
314 
274 


767 


PHARMACISTS. 


Pharmacists  are  appointed  from  university  graduates  in  pharmacy. 
They  have  relative  but  not  actual  rank.  The  grades  and  titles  of 
those  in  permanent  service  are : 


Grade  and  title. 


Chimico  iarmacista  inspectore 

Chimico  farmacista  directore 

Farmacista  capo  di  prima  classe... 
Farmacista  capo  di  seconda  classe 

Farmacista  di  prima  classe 

Farmacista  di  prima  classe 


Total. 


Relative  rank. 


Colonel 

Lieutenant  colonel . 

Major 

Captain 

do , 

Lieutenant 


Number. 


96 


In  addition  to  the  above  permanent  personnel  there  are  on  duty 
at  all  times  with  the  standing  army  about  30  "  Farmacista  di  comple- 
mento  di  3a  classe."  Men  in  this  grade  (relative  rank  of  second 
lieutenant)  are  obtained  from  students  of  pharmacy  who  are  doing 
their  period  of  service  with  the  colors  and  who  have  passed  an  exami- 
nation entitling  them  to  this  grade.  After  passing  into  the  reserve 
these  men  form  a  large  body  of  men  available  for  pharmacist  service 
in  war. 

ADMINISTRATION  OFFICERS. 

Officers  and  officials  belonging  to  the  services  of  administration, 
pay,  and  accounts  are  detailed  for  service  in  the  medical  department. 
Their  services  are  similar  to  those  of  administration  and  supply 
services  in  other  continental  armies. 


ENLISTED  PERSONNEL. 

The  enlisted  personnel  for  the  medical  service  consists  of  two 
parts — (a)  the  regimental  medical  service  (derived  from  combatant 
units) ;  (b)  the  hospital  medical  service  (men  enlisted  directly  into 
the  army  medical  corps). 

The  regimental  medical  service  consists  of  noncommissioned  officers 
called  "  medical  assistants  "  and  litter  bearers  recruited  from  amongst 
the  soldiers  of  the  unit  with  which  they  do  duty.    Medical  assistants 

633 


40 

go  through  a  course  of  two  months'  instruction  in  the  military  hos- 
pital of  the  division  to  which  their  regiment  belongs  and  are  then 
employed  as  assistants  to  the  medical  officer  in  the  regimental  in- 
firmary. There  is  one  "  medical  assistant "  to  each  regiment  in  time 
of  peace,  but  the  number  is  increased  to  six  in  time  of  war  by  utilizing 
men  who  have  passed  into  the  reserve. 

Each  year  two  men  per  company  of  nonmounted  units  are  selected 
to  go  through  a  course  of  three  months'  instruction  as  litter  bearers 
under  the  medical  officer  of  the  unit.  They  do  general  duty  in  the 
regimental  infirmary  in  peace  and,  after  passing  into  the  reserve,  sup- 
ply, on  mobilization,  the  litter  bearers  of  field  medical  units  in  time 
of  war. 

The  hospital  medical  service  is  performed  by  the  subordinate 
ranks  of  the  medical  corps.  Its  personnel  consists  of  warrant  offi- 
cers, noncommissioned  officers,  and  men  recruited  directly  into  the 
corps  at  the  time  of  the  annual  levies.  The  strength  of  enlisted 
personnel,  medical  corps,  1912,  was  3,729.  These  men  are  organized 
into  12  companies,  one  for  each  army  corps.  The  headquarters  of 
each  company  is  at  the  military  hospital  at  army  corps  headquar- 
ters, detachments  being  distributed  to  other  hospitals  and  medical 
establishments  within  the  command.  There  is  no  fixed  establish- 
ment for  each  company,  the  establishment  depending  upon  the  num- 
ber of  medical  units  in  the  army  corps.  The  number  is  restricted, 
however,  as  much  of  the  general  work  in  hospitals  is  done  by  men 
attached  to  the  medical  companies  from  combatant  units.  These 
attached  men  are  called  "  aggregati."  They  do  not  remain  perma- 
nently with  the  companies  but  are  replaced  by  others  from  time  to 
time. 

NURSING  SISTERS. 

There  is  no  recognized  service  of  nursing  sisters  in  the  Italian 
Army,  but  sisters  of  the  order  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  are  employed 
in  the  larger  military  hospitals. 

GENERAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PERSONNEL. 

The  technical  administration  of  the  medical  service  is  vested  in 
an  Inspectorate  of  Medical  Services  at  the  war  office  in  Rome.  This 
body  has  no  administrative  power  but  acts  as  a  consultative  or  ad- 
visory medical  board.  The  details  of  army  medical  organization  as 
a  whole  are  in  the  hands  of  a  medical  officer  attached  to  the  general 
staff  at  army  headquarters,  while  the  more  direct  administration  and 
command  are  vested  in  the  general  officers  commanding  army  corps 
and  their  principal  medical  officers.  At  each  corps  headquarters 
there  is  a  Principal  Medical  Officer  (colonel),  with  one  captain  and 
one  official  of  administration  as  assistants.     The  remainder  of  the 


41 

medical  officers  are  distributed  to  military  hospitals  and  other  estab- 
lishments and  to  regiments.  The  senior  medical  officer  of  the  larger 
hospitals  is  a  colonel  or  lieutenant  colonel,  and  under  him  there  are 
usually  one  or  two  lieutenant  colonels,  six  majors,  and  seven  or  eight 
captains. 

Pharmacist  officials  are  distributed  to  the  various  hospitals,  the 
larger  hospitals  having  usually  three. 

Each  regiment  in  peace  has  a  regimental  infirmary  under  charge 
of  the  regimental  surgeon  and  one  assistant.  The  enlisted  personnel 
consists  of  a  "medical  assistant"  and  litter  bearers  from  the  regi- 
ment. 

Where  several  regiments  together  form  a  small  garrison  a  "gar- 
rison hospital"  is  established.  These  hospitals  correspond  to  the 
post  hospitals  at  our  larger  posts.  A  major,  medical  corps,  is  in 
command,  with  the  medical  officers  of  the  regiments  as  assistants. 
The  enlisted  personnel  is  derived  from  the  regiments  and  supple- 
mented by  men  of  the  army  medical  corps. 

Principal  hospitals,  corresponding  to  our  general  hospitals,  are 
established  at  each  corps  headquarters  and  with  one  division  head- 
quarters, so  that  there  are  two  general  hospitals  to  each  corps.  The 
personnel  for  these  hospitals  is  supplied  from  the  medical  corps  and 
the  "  aggregati."    A  chaplain  is  appointed  to  each  general  hospital. 

WAR  ORGANIZATION. 

The  field  army  is  the  grand  unit  of  organization  in  the  Italian 
service.  Each  field  army  is  composed  of  three  corps,  one  division  of 
cavalry  and  auxiliary  troops.  At  each  field  army  headquarters  is  a 
Director  of  Medical  Services  (surgeon  general).  For  military  pur- 
poses he  belongs  to  the  administrative  staff.  He  has  direct  military 
as  well  as  technical  command  of  all  medical  units  in  the  zone  of  field 
operations  and  lines  of  communication.  As  assistants  he  has  4 
captains  and  4  lieutenants,  medical  corps,  4  pharmacists,  2  clerks, 

2  orderlies,  and  11  servants.    He  has  also  a  transport  detachment  of 

3  noncommissioned  officers  and  15  men  of  the  artillery  train.  He  is 
responsible  for  keeping  the  medical  service  in  the  advance  supplied 
with  personnel  and  materiel  and  for  the  transportation  and  distri- 
bution of  the  sick  and  wounded.  He  cooperates  for  this  purpose  with 
the  Director  of  transport  and  the  Director  of  lines  of  communication. 

Each  corps  has  a  Principal  Medical  Officer  (colonel)  with  one 
assistant  (captain),  a  clerk,  orderly,  and  two  servants.  He  coordi- 
nates the  medical  services  and  directs  the  movements  of  the  corps 
medical  units. 

Each  division  has  a  Principal  Medical  Officer,  with  one  lieutenant 
as  assistant,  and  one  enlisted  clerk.    He  is  directly  under  the  chief 
of  staff  of  the  division. 
033 


42 

MEDICAL  SERVICE  WITH  COMBATANT  UNITS. 

The  medical  personnel  for  each  combatant  unit  is  augmented  in 
time  of  war  by  officers  from  the  "  complement "  and  men  from  the 
reserve.  That  for  an  infantry  regiment  is  7  medical  officers  (1  cap- 
tain, 6  lieutenants)  and  30  enlisted  men  from  the  regiment  (6  medi- 
cal assistants  and  24  litter  bearers). 

That  for  a  cavalry  regiment  consists  of  3  medical  officers  and  2 
enlisted  "  assistants." 

Smaller  imits,  such  as  engineer  companies,  batteries  of  artillery, 
etc.,  have  1  medical  officer  and  1  enlisted  man. 

MEDICAL  FIELD  UNITS. 

The  medical  field  units  consist  of  ambulance  companies,  assigned 
to  both  divisions  and  corps;  and  field  hospitals,  assigned  to  corps. 
There  are  also  reserve  field  hospitals,  assigned  to  the  field  armies. 

AMBULANCE    COMPANIES. 

Ambulance  companies  establish  dressing  stations  and  send  out 
litter  squads  to  evacuate  wounded  from  the  combatant  units.  Their 
organization  is  in  general  the  same,  with  slight  modifications  to  fit 
them  for  service  with  infantry,  with  cavalry,  and  with  mountain 
troops.  The  personnel  of  an  ambulance  company  for  duty  with 
infantry  is  6  medical  officers,  a  quartermaster,  chaplain,  and  228 
noncommissioned  officers  and  privates,  medical  corps,  with  a  trans- 
port personnel  attached  from  the  artillery  train  of  1  officer  and  31 
noncommissioned  officers  and  privates.  Its  transportation  consists 
of  3  carts,  2  wagons,  and  8  ambulances. 

The  mountain  ambulance  company  has  the  same  medical  per- 
sonnel, with  1  officer  and  60  enlisted  men  for  transport.  It  has  30 
pack  mules  in  addition  to  the  transportation  provided  for  the  in- 
fantry ambulance  company. 

The  cavalry  ambulance  company  is  a  smaller  unit,  with  only  3 
medical  officers,  a  quartermaster,  chaplain,  32  noncommissioned 
officers  and  privates,  medical  corps,  and  13  enlisted  men  for  trans- 
port. Its  transportation  consists  of  1  cart,  1  wagon,  and  4  ambu- 
lances. 

Ambulance  companies  are  not  organized  in  peace.  Materiel  for 
them  is  kept  in  storage  at  each  corps  headquarters,  and  in  time  of 
war  they  are  mobilized  under  the  direction  of  the  Principal  Medical 
Officer  of  the  Qorps.  Officers  are  secured  from  the  various  classes  of 
officers,  and  enlisted  men  for  these  units  are  drawn  from  those  avail- 
able within  the  corps.  One  infantry  ambulance  company  is  organ- 
ized for  each  division,  and  one  reserve  infantry  ambulance  company 
for  each  corps.    A  cavalry  ambulance  company  is  assigned  to  each 

633 


43 

cavalry  division,  and  a  mountain  ambulance  company  to  each  moun- 
tain force  (7  Alpine  battalions). 

FIELD  HOSPITALS. 

Field  hospitals  are  of  three  kinds :  (a)  50-bed  hospitals  on  wheeled 
transport;  (6)  50-bed  hospitals  on  pack  transport;  (c)  100-bed  hos- 
pitals. 

Fifty-bed  hospitals  are  army  corps  units  in  the  proportion  of  8  to 
each  corps.  One  hundred-bed  hospitals  are  field  army  units.  Each 
field  army  has  12  hospitals.  The  personnel  of  a  50-bed  hospital  con- 
sists of  3  medical  officers,  1  quartermaster,  1  pharmacist,  1  chaplain, 
29  noncommissioned  officers  and  privates,  medical  corps,  and  1  non- 
commissioned officer  and  6  privates  for  transport  personnel.  Its 
transportation  consists  of  3  wagons.  The  50-bed  hospitals  Avith  pack 
transportation  have  an  additional  sergeant  and  35  additional  privates 
in  the  transport  section.  Its  transportaion  ife  30  pack  mules.  The 
personnel  of  the  field  army  hospital  (100  beds)  consists  of  6  medical 
officers,  1  quartermaster,  1  pharmacist,  1  chaplain,  26  enlisted  men, 
medical  corps,  and  7  enlisted  men  for  transport.  Its  transportation 
consists  of  4  carts  and  1  wagon. 

LINES  OF   COMMUNICATION. 

The  medical  service  on  lines  of  communication  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Director  of  Medical  Services  for  the  field  army.  There  is 
no  Principal  Medical  Officer  for  lines  of  communication  as  in  other 
armies.  Aside  from  the  medical  supply  depots  and  the  field  hos- 
pitals belonging  to  the  field  army,  there  are  no  fixed  medical  for- 
mations, the  general  scheme  being  to  establish  hospitals  and  rest 
stations  as  occasion  demands.  For  the  evacuation  hospitals  or  clear- 
ing stations  at  the  railhead  common  to  other  armies,  the  Italian  medi- 
cal service  utilizes  the  field  hospitals  held  in  reserve.  There  is  also 
no  definite  transport  unit  for  evacuation  of  the  wounded  to  the  rail- 
Lead.  This  work  is  done  by  the  intendence  department  as  required. 
Nearly  all  medical  work  on  lines  of  communication  and  in  home  terri- 
tory is  performed  by  personnel  from  the  territorial  militia  and  from 
that  furnished  by  volunteer  aid  societies.  Of  these  latter,  two  are 
officially  recognized  as  part  of  the  Italian  Army.  They  are  the 
Italian  Red  Cress  So2iety  and  the  Military  Sovcjreign  Order  of  Malta. 
These  societies,  and  especially  the  Red  Cross,  are  organized  to  supply 
an  appreciable  part  of  the  medical  personnel  and  supplies  required 
by  war.  The  Red  Cross  keeps  read}^  and  is  prepared  to  furnish  64 
mountain  ambulance  companies,  47  war  hospitals,  14  hospital  trains, 
2  equipments  for  hospital  ships,  and  65  rest  stations.    In  addition 

533 


44 

to  these  units  on  hand,  similar  units  may  be  organized  in  unlimited 
numbers,  and  it  is  upon  these  units  that  entire  dependence  is  placed 
in  time  of  war  for  service  on  the  line  of  communication.  They  all 
come  under  the  control  of  the  field  army  Medical  Director,  but  each 
unit  is  commanded  and  operated  by  Red  Cross  personnel. 

HOME  TERRITORY. 

For  patients  sent  to  home  territory,  the  military  hospitals  and  con- 
valescent depots  maintained  in  peace  are  utilized,  and,  if  necessary, 
enlarged.  Many  convalescent  patients  are  also  sent  to  their  homes 
and  paid  20  cents  daily  in  lieu  of  rations.  In  addition  to  the  regular 
military  hospitals,  civil  hospitals  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
military  authorities  and  new  hospitals  are  organized  by  voluntary 
aid  societies. 

VI.  RUSSIA. 

PEACE  ESTABLISHMENT. 

All  male  Russian  subjects,  with  the  exception  of  the  Mohammedan 
native  Caucasian  population  and  the  population  of  a  few  Provinces, 
are  liable  to  military  service  from  the  twenty-first  to  the  forty-fourth 
year  of  age. 

This  service  is  divided  into  (a)  that  in  the  standing  army  and 
reserves,  and  (h)  that  in  the  Imperial  Militia.  At  the  annual  levy 
the  class  of  service  to  which  a  man  is  assigned  is  determined  by  lot. 

Service  in  the  standing  army  comprises  3  years  with  the  colors 
and  15  years  in  the  reserve  for  the  infantry,  and  4  years  with  the 
colors  and  13  years  in  the  reserve  for  the  other  arms.  The  reserve 
is  divided  into  two  classes.  Service  in  the  first  class  is  for  7  years,' 
and  that  in  the  second  class  for  the  remaining  period  of  reserve  serv- 
ice. Upon  completion  of  service  in  the  reserve  men  pass  to  the  Im- 
perial Militia,  where  they  remain  until  they  reach  the  age  of  44. 

All  men  not  required  in  the  standing  army,  and  men  who  have 
completed  their  service  in  that  army,  form  the  Imperial  Militia. 
Men  engaged  in  certain  occupations  are  exempt  from  service  with  the 
colors  in  time  of  peace  and  may,  if  they  draw  a  number  for  the 
standing  army,  be  passed  immediately  into  the  reserve.  Medical 
men  are  so  exempt. 

Men  may  also  volunteer  for  service  with  the  colors,  in  which  case 
they  serve  for  one  year  and  then  pass  to  the  reserve.  Medical  men, 
pharmacists,  and  veterinarians  who  so  volunteer,  if  accepted,  are 
allowed  to  serve  as  such. 

The  standing  army  is  divided  into  37  corps  located  in  13  military 
districts.    The  total  peace  strength  of  this  army  in  1912  was  1,284,000 
officers  and  men. 
G88 


45 

ORGANIZATION    OF  THE   MEDICAL  SERVICE. 

The  medical  organization  for  the  Russian  Army,  while  following 
the  same  general  lines,  differs  materially  from  those  of  other  armies. 
From  top  to  bottom  there  exists  a  system  of  dual  control,  the  duties 
of  medical  officers  being  of  a  purely  technical  character,  while  the 
administrative  duties  are  in  the  hands  of  line  officers.  In  her  field 
medical  units,  too,  Russia,  while  providing  a  large  enlisted  personnel, 
has  a  commissioned  personnel  much  smaller  in  proportion  than  that 
provided  for  similar  units  in  other  armies.  Apparently  this  system 
of  dual  control  and  divided  responsibility,  together  with  an  insuffi- 
cient number  of  medical  officers,  has  not  proved  satisfactory.  A 
committee  was  appointed  r.fter  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  under  the 
presidency  of  Gen.  Trekov,  of  the  line,  who  was  Director  of  Hospitals 
in  Kuropatkin's  army,  to  consider  questions  of  improving  the  medi- 
cal service,  and  as  a  result  of  the  recommendations  of  that  committee, 
more  authority  has  now  been  given  medical  officers  in  the  matter  of 
command,  but  there  is  still  a  great  portion  of  the  medical  service  in 
which  this  complicated  system  exists  and  the  medical  field  units  are 
still  underofficered. 

Another  improvement  in  the  medical  service  resulting  from  the 
recommendations  of  this  committee  was  the  passing  of  a  law  in  1913 
giving  military  rank  to  medical  officers.  Heretofore  they  had  been 
merely  military  officials  in  various  grades,  but  without  actual  rank. 
The  actual  rank  they  now  hold  is  the  same  as  that  of  officers  of  the 
line.  There  are  no  brigadier  generals  and  no  majors  in  the  Russian 
Army,  and  hence  medical  officers  are  commissioned  in  the  medical 
corps  in  the  various  grades  of  lieutenant  general,  major  general, 
colonel,  lieutenant  colonel,  captain,  and  lieutenant. 

The  law  authorizing  the  giving  of  commissioned  rank  is  very 
broad  and  does  not  specify  any  definite  numbers  for  each  rank  nor 
for  the  whole  corps.  It  provides  generally  that  certain  positions 
shall  carry  with  them  certain  ranks  and  that  medical  officers  occupy- 
ing these  positions  shall  be  given  rank  commensurate  with  the  posi- 
tion irrespective  of  the  number  of  medical  officers  holding  similar 
rank. 

Promotion  is  entirely  by  selection  and  is  largely  in  the  hands  of 
the  Director  General  of  the  army  medical  department.  Appoint- 
ments of  officers  to  positions  carrying  with  them  the  higher  ranks 
are  made  by  the  Minister  of  War  upon  the  recommendation  of  the 
Director  General,  but  in  positions  carrying  with  them  lower  rank, 
the  Director  General  has  the  power  to  appoint  or  transfer  officers. 
He  also  has  the  authority  to  retire  at  will  officers  occupying  such 
positions. 

533 


46 

ADMINISTRATION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PERSONNEL. 

The  whole  of  the  strictly  medical  service  is  under  the  direction  of 
the  Director  General  of  the  medical  department,  which  is  a  bureau  of 
the  war  department.  He  has  the  rank  of  lieutenant  general  and  is 
ex  officio  a  member  of  the  chief  military  sanitary  committee  of  the 
war  office.  This  committee,  besides  the  Director  General  of  the 
medical  services,  consists  of  the  Chief  of  Staff,  Chief  of  Engineers, 
and  Chief  of  the  Intendance.  The  committee  supervises  the  entire 
operation  of  the  medical  department. 

To  each  military  district  there  is  assigned  a  District  Medical  In- 
spector with  rank  of  lieutenant  general  and  an  Assistant  District 
Medical  Inspector  with  rank  of  major  general.  When  troops  in  the 
district  are  mobilized  the  District  Medical  Inspector  becomes  the 
Principal  Medical  Officer  of  the  field  army  formed  from  the  troops 
in  the  district  and  the  Assistant  District  Inspector  takes  over  his 
duties  in  the  district. 

On  the  headquarters  staff  of  each  corps,  division,  or  separate 
brigade  there  is  a  Chief  Surgeon.  The  new  law  provides  that  one- 
third  of  the  total  number  of  Corps  Surgeons  shall  have  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  general  and  two-thirds  of  those  surgeons  shall  have  the 
rank  of  major  general.  It  also  provides  that  one-third  of  the  Divi- 
sion Surgeons  shall  be  major  generals  and  two-thirds  colonels.  The 
rank  of  the  Chief  Surgeon  of  a  separate  brigade  is  also  that  of 
colonel. 

Fortress  troops  are  distinct  from  troops  of  the  mobile  army,  and 
with  each  fortress  there  is  also  a  Chief  Surgeon  with  rank  of  major 
general  or  colonel. 

With  each  infantry  regiment  there  is  one  regimental  surgeon,  and 
with  each  infantry  battalion  or  similar  unit  there  is  one  junior  medi- 
cal officer.  The  new  law  provides  that  one-third  of  the  senior  regi- 
mental surgeons  shall  have  the  rank  of  colonel  and  that  two-thirds  of 
them  shall  have  the  rank  of  lieutenant  colonel.  The  junior  regi- 
mental medical  officers  rank  as  captains  or  lieutenants.  The  total 
number  of  medical  officers  of  all  ranks  holding  permanent  commis- 
sions in  the  standing  army  is  3,758.     (Budget,  1913.) 

The  subordinate  medical  personnel  is  divided  into  two  main  classes : 
(a)  That  belonging  directly  to  the  medical  department  and  (b) 
that  belonging  to  combatant  units,  but  doing  duty  with  the  medical 
department. 

The  subordinate  personnel  belonging  directly  to  the  medical  de- 
l>artment  comprises  (a)     feldshers,  (h)  nad  zirateli. 

533 


47 

FELDSHERS. 

Feldshers  are  a  peculiar  element  in  the  medical  service.  They  are, 
in  effect,  partially  trained  medical  men  who  have  not  received  a  de- 
gree in  medicine,  and  correspond  practically  to  the  "  Practicante " 
in  Spanish  countries. 

They  are  divided  into  two  classes:  (a)  Those  who  have  received 
their  medical  training  before  entering  the  army  and  (b)  those  who 
have  been  trained  in  the  army. 

The  first  are  permitted  to  practice  medicine  in  civil  life  after  com- 
pleting their  army  service,  but  the  second  are  not  so  permitted. 

Feldshers  of  both  classes  serve  as  assistants  to  medical  officers  in 
military  hospitals  and  with  combatant  units. 

NADZIRATELI. 

The  nadzirateli  are  men  specially  trained  in  nursing  and  other 
hospital  duties,  and  serve  in  both  the  large  general  hospitals  and 
regimental  hospitals.  Those  serving  in  the  general  hospitals  usually 
rank  as  noncommissioned  officers. 

In  addition  to  these  two  classes  belonging  directly  to  the  medical 
department,  noncommissioned  officers  and  men  belonging  to  the  line 
are  detached  from  combatant  units  for  duty  as  hospital  atendants 
and  litter  bearers.  Hospital  attendants  from  combatant  units  are 
detailed  for  duty  under  the  medical  department  in  regimental  hos- 
pitals. Litter  bearers  are  not  detached  from  their  units,  but  are 
classed  as  combatants.  The  number  of  men  trained  in  the  duties  of 
litter  bearers  is  sufficient  to  not  only  supply  the  numbers  of  bearers 
required  by  the  regiment  in  war,  but  also  to  furnish  the  cadres  for 
divisional  bearer  companies. 

In  addition  to  the  enlisted  personnel,  officials  corresponding  to 
our  civil-service  men  are  employed  for  quartermaster  duties,  clerical 
duties,  etc. 

Each  regiment  is  provided  with  a  regimental  hospital  (lazaret) 
for  use  of  the  regimental  sick.  It  is  operated  by  the  regimental 
medical  personnel  if  no  permanent  hospital  is  available.  If,  how- 
ever, a  permanent  military  hospital  is  available,  the  regimental 
lazaret  is  not  established,  but  is  kept  in  storage  and  the  regimental 
sick  are  treated  in  the  "regimental  receiving  rooms"  (infirmaries), 
the  seriously  sick  being  sent  to  the  permanent  hospitals. 

When  regiments  are  mobilized  for  field  service  their  lazarets  al- 
ways accompany  them  and  become  part  of  the  medical  mobile  units 
in  the  field  army. 

Distributed  among  the  military  districts  are  large  permanent  hos- 
pitals, varying  in  capacity  from  150  to  800  beds.     At  the  outbreak 

533 


48 

of  the  present  war  there  were  27  of  these  hospitals  in  Russia,  with  a 
total  bed  capacity  of  15,221  beds.  The  general  administration  of 
permanent  hospitals  is  imder  the  direction  of  a  line  officer,  and  he 
commands  all  the  personnel  of  the  hospital.  The  strictly  technical 
service  is  under  the  direction  of  a  chief  surgeon,  with  rank  of  colonel 
or  lieutenant  colonel,  with  a  staff  consisting  of  two  or  more  senior 
medical  officers  with  rank  of  lieutenant  colonel  and  a  number  of 
junior  medical  officers  with  rank  of  captain  and  lieutenant.  The 
enlisted  personnel  consists  of  feldshirs  and  nadzirateli  from  the 
regular  medical  service. 

WAR  ORGANIZATION. 

The  medical  service  of  field  armies  is  under  the  direction  of  either 
the  Adjutant  General  of  the  field  army  or  of  a  "  Director  of  Medical 
Services,"  who  is  a  lieutenant  general  of  the  line.  Assisting  him  in 
the  general  administration  of  his  office  is  an  office  director,  also  a 
line  officer,  whose  duties  are  similar  to  those  of  a  chief  of  staff.  The 
administration  of  this  office  is  divided  into  (a)  the  field  military  hos- 
pital department,  (h)  the  field  military  medical  department,  (c) 
the  field  veterinary  department,  and  (d)  the  department  of  volun- 
tary aid. 

At  the  head  of  the  field  military  hospital  department  is  the  Field 
Inspector  of  Hospitals,  a  combatant  officer  with  rank  of  lieutenant 
general.  He  is  in  command  of  all  the  medical  units  in  the  army 
except  for  their  technical  service.  This  latter  is  under  the  direction 
of  the  Field  Medical  Inspector  with  rank  of  lieutenant  general  in  the 
medical  corps.  The  department  of  voluntary  aid  has  at  its  head  a 
Commissioner  of  the  Red  Cross  Society. 

At  each  army  corps  headquarters  there  is  also  a  line  officer  in 
charge  of  the  general  police,  upon  whom  rests  the  responsibility  of 
evacuating  the  wounded  from  the  field  units.  For  this  purpose  he 
arranges  the  necessary  transportation  and  for  additional  men  to  be 
detached  from  combatant  units  when  necessary  to  assist  in  collecting 
the  wounded. 

MEDICAL    SERVICE    WITH    COMBATANT    UNITS. 

Each  regiment  is  accompanied  by  its  lazaret,  and  this  forms  the 
basis  of  the  regimental  service.  Its  personnel  consists  of  5  medical 
officers  (1  lieutenant  colonel  in  command),  21  feldshers,  1  nadziratel 
of  the  medical  corps,  and  128  litter  bearers  from  the  line. 

The  transportation  consists  of  1  wagon,  4  carts,  and  4  ambulances. 

MOBILE  MEDICAL  UNITS. 

The  mobile  medical  units  assigned  to  each  division  are  one  divi- 
sional lazaret  and  two  field  hospitals. 

533 


49 

THE  DIVISIONAL  LAZARET, 

The  unit  is  directly  under  the  command  of  the  Division  Surgeon. 
Under  him  is  one  medical  officer  in  charge  of  the  dressing-station 
section  and  a  line  officer  in  charge  of  the  bearer  section  and  wheeled 
transportation.  The  function  of  the  divisional  lazaret  is  to  form  a 
main  dressing  station  as  a  link  between  the  regimental  stations  and 
the  field  hospitals. 

The  personnel  of  the  dressing-station  section  comprises  4  medical 
officers,  1  officer  of  administration,  7  noncommissioned  officers  and 
20  privates  (medical  corps) ,  and  2  clerks.  The  personnel  of  the 
bearer  section  comprises  1  officer  of  administration,  1  clerk,  IT  non- 
commissioned officers  and  200  privates  from  line  troops,  and  2  non- 
commissioned officers  and  37  drivers  from  transport  troops;  total,  6 
officers,  3  clerks,  26  noncommissioned  officers,  and  257  privates. 

The  transportation  consists  of  8  ambulances,  16  wagons,  and  3 
carts. 

FIELD  HOSPITALS. 

Field  hospitals  are  provided  in  the  proportion  of  eight  to  each 
division.  Four  of  these  are  mobile  hospitals  and  the  other  four  are 
held  in  reserve  on  the  line  of  communications.  Of  the  four  mobile 
hospitals  two  only  are  assigned  to  the  divisional  sanitary  train  and 
the  other  two  are  field-army  units.  Each  field  hospital  has  a  ca- 
pacity of  200  beHs.  The  total  number  of  beds  in  the  eight  field 
hospitals  allowed  for  each  division  is  sufficient  to  provide  for  7.4  per 
cent  of  the  total  strength  of  the  division.  This  is  in  addition  to  the 
beds  in  the  regimental  and  divisional  lazarets. 

The  personnel  of  a  mobile  field  hospital  comprises  4  medical  officers, 
1  pharmacist,  1  officer  of  administration,  1  chaplain,  16  noncommis- 
sioned officers,  and  59  privates  (medical  corps),  and  2  noncommis- 
sioned officers  and  26  drivers,  transport  troops.  In  addition  to  the 
enlisted  personnel,  there  are  4  clerks  and  4  Sisters  of  Mercy.  Total, 
7  officers,  18  noncommissioned  officers,  and  85  privates,  and  8  civilians. 
The  transportation  consists  of  20  wagons,  4  carts,  and  1  ambulance. 

LINES  OF  COMMUNICATION — TRANSPORT  COLUMNS. 

For  evacuating  wounded  from  the  front  to  the  railhead,  sick  and 
wounded  transport  columns  are  organized  as  definite  units  in  the 
proportion  of  1  to  each  corps.  The  movements  of  these  units  is 
controlled  by  the  Director  of  Medical  Services  for  the  field  army  and 
each  hospital  is  commanded  by  an  officer  of  the  line.  The  personnel 
consists  of  2  medical  officers,  1  quartermaster,  7  noncommissioned 

533 


60 

officers  and  17  privates  (medical  corps),  3  noncommissioned  officers 
and  68  drivers  transport  troops,  2  clerks,  and  2  Sisters  of  Mercy. 
Total,  3  officers,  10  noncommissioned  officers,  85  privates,  and  4  civil- 
ians. The  transportation  consists  of  27  ambulances,  7  wagons,  1  cart, 
and  1  rolling  kitchen. 

HOSPITAL   TRAINS. 

Hospital  trains  are  made  up  from  third-class  passenger  coaches 
and  have  a  capacity  of  250  patients.  They  are  commanded  by  line 
officers  and  have  a  medical  personnel  of  2  officers  and  45  attendants. 

SANITARY  DETACHMENTS. 

Special  sanitary  detachments  are  organized  in  the  proportion  of 
1  to  each  division  and  1  to  each  corps.  They  are  divided  into  (a) 
bacteriological  columns  and  (b)  disinfecting  columns.  They  are 
under  the  command  of  the  Director  of  Medical  Services  and  are  util- 
ized where  needed  for  special  sanitary  work.  The  personnel  of  a 
bacteriological  column  is  3  medical  officers,  3  noncommissioned  offi- 
cers and  6  privates  (medical  corps),  and  5  drivers  (transport 
troops).    For  transportation  it  has  5  wagons. 

The  personnel  of  a  disinfection  column  is  1  medical  officer,  3  non- 
commissioned officers,  6  privates  (medical  corps),  and  4  drivers 
(transport  troops).    Transportation,  4  wagons. 

EVACUATION    HOSPITALS. 

There  are  no  distinct  evacuation  hospitals  or  clearing  stations  at 
the  head  of  the  line  of  communications  in  the  Russian  service,  but 
in  each  area  where  field  armies  are  operating  an  "evacuation  com- 
mission "  is  appointed,  whose  duty  it  is  to  arrange  a  classifying  sta- 
tion, where  wounded  can  be  collected  and  their  disposition  deter- 
mined, and  to  arrange  rest  stations,  stationary  hospitals,  etc.,  on  the 
line.  This  commission  is  a  cumbersome  body  and  is  composed  of  a 
president  (general  officer),  1  assistant  (line  officer),  1  medical  officer, 
and  a  delegate  of  the  Red  Cross  Society. 

HOME  TERRITORY. 

The  general  provisions  for  final  disposition  of  sick  and  wounded 
in  home  teritory  are  on  similar  lines  to  those  of  other  nations,  ex- 
cept that  this  disposition  is  under  the  direction  of  commissions  simi- 
lar in  character  to  the  commissions  for  evacuating  the  wounded  on 
lines  of  communication.  The  commissions  in  home  territory  arrange 
hospital  accommodations  and  distribute  sick  and  wounded  accord- 
ingly. 

638 


51 

VII.  JAPAN. 

PEACE   ESTABLISHMENT. 

The  military  survice  is  divided  into — (a)  the  active  army  (Gue- 
neki)  ;  (h)  first  reserve  (Yobi)  ;  (c)  second  reserve  (Kobi)  ;  (d)  re- 
placement troops  (reserve  of  recruitment)  (Hoju) ;  (e)  the  na- 
tional army,  first  and  second  parts  (Kakurnin). 

Service  is  obligatory  on  all  males  between  the  ages  of  17  and  40. 
The  period  of  service  is  regulated  as  follows : 

Gueneki. — Three  years,  save  for  the  infantry,  where  men  pass  the 
third  year  under  the  status  of  furlough,  and  in  the  train  troops, 
where  the  service  is  but  six  months. 

Tohi. — Comprising  men  coming  from  Gueneki;  4  years  and  4 
months. 

Kobi. — Men  from  Kobi ;  10  years. 

Hoiu, — Comprising  men  in  excess  of  the  needs  of  Gueneki;  12 
years  and  4  months. 

Kakurnin.,  -first  fart. — Two  years  and  8  months  for  men  coming 
from  Kobi  and  7  years  and  8  months  for  men  coming  from  Hoju. 

Kakurnin.,  second  fart. — All  men  between  17  and  40  not  comprised 
in  the  preceding  categories. 

The  active  army  is  divided  into  19  divisions  and  19  reserve  divi- 
sions. It  is  contemplated  to  gradually  increase  this  army  to  25 
divisions,  with  a  similar  number  of  reserve  divisions. 

Each  of  these  divisions  occupies  a  military  district  and  is  com- 
plete in  itself,  not  only  as  regards  combatant  troops,  but  as  regards 
auxiliary  troops,  including  the  medical  department. 

The  total  peace  strength  of  the  active  army  is  235,500. 

ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT. 

The  medical  department,  both  in  peace  and  war,  is  organized 
largely  along  the  lines  of  the  German  medical  service. 

COMMISSIONED   OFFICERS. 

The  commissioned  officers  in  the  medical  service  consist  of  medical 
officers  and  apothecaries.  The  titles,  ranks,  and  numbers  of  medical 
officers  are: 


Title. 


Rank. 


Number. 


Director  general  (gun-i-cho) 

Surgeon  general  (gun-i-kan) 

Senior  surgeon,  first  class  (itto-gun-i-sei;  — 
Senior  surgeon,  second  class  (nito-gun-i-seij . 
Senior  surgeon,  third  class  (santo-gun-i-sei). 

Surgeon,  first  class  (itto-gun-i) 

Surgeon,  second  class  (nito-gun-i) 

Surgeon,  third  class  (santo-gun-i) 


Lieutenant  general. . , 

Major  general 

Colonel. 

Lieutenant  colonel. . . 

Major 

Captain 

First  lieutenant 

Second  lieutenant 


Total. 


538 


12.5 

473 
279 
281 


1,231 


52 

BESERVE  MEDICAL  OFFICERS. 

In  addition  to  the  medical  officers  on  permanent  duty  with  the 
active  army,  there  are  always  a  large  number  of  reserve  medical 
officers  available  for  service.  These  reserve  medical  officers  are 
formed  out  of  several  elements. 

(a)  Medical  officers  retired  from  active  service  but  who  are  able 
to  perform  certain  services. 

(h)  Medical  officers  who  were  "one-year  volunteers."  These  are 
men  who,  while  medical  students,  were  drafted  to  the  colors,  and 
whose  service  was  limited  to  one  year  on  condition  that  they  enter 
the  reserve  as  medical  officers  upon  receiving  their  qualification. 

(c)  Eeserve  medical  officers  maintained  by  the  Red  Cross  Society. 

PHARMACISTS. 

Pharmacists  hold  commissioned  rank  and  comprise  those  serving 
with  the  active  army  and  those  serving  in  the  reserve  in  the  same 
way  as  medical  officers.  With  the  active  army  there  are  chief  phar- 
macists (yaku-zai  sei)  to  the  number  of  10  and  pharmacist  officers 
(yaku-zai  kwan)  to  the  number  of  112;  total  in  active  service,  122. 

ENLISTED   PERSONNEL. 

The  enlisted  personnel  for  medical  service  is  selected  from  men 
who  have  passed  the  first  year  of  their  service  in  line  organizations. 
These  men,  in  the  proportion  of  two  per  company,  are  detailed  for 
medical  service  with  their  organization  and  receive  training  in  their 
duties  from  medical  officers  serving  with  the  organization.  After  a 
period  of  such  training  they  are  transferred  to  the  garrison  hospital 
at  the  headquarters  of  the  division  in  which  they  are  serving,  and  are 
there  given  a  course  in  hospital  training.  When  their  hospital  train- 
ing is  completed,  they  may  be  returned  to  their  organizations  as  non- 
commissioned officers  of  the  medical  service  or  they  may  continue  on 
duty  as  ward  masters,  clerks,  etc.,  in  hospitals.  Eventually  they  pass 
to  the  reserve  as  reserves  of  the  army  medical  service,  and  wpon 
mobilization  they  are  utilized  to  form  the  various  medical  field  units. 

The  duties  of  nurses  and  hospital  attendants  in  military  hospitals 
are  not  performed  by  enlisted  men.  Such  duties  are  performed  by 
men  who  were  not  of  sufficient  physique  to  be  enlisted.  They  are 
civil  employees  and  are  used  largely  in  time  of  war  in  hospitals  on 
lines  of  communication  and  in  home  territory. 

633 


53 

ADMINISTRATION  AND  DISTRIBUTION   OF  PERSONNEL, 

The  general  administration  of  the  medical  department  is  vested 
in  a  Director  General,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant  general,  who  is  the 
head  of  the  medical  bureau  of  the  war  department. 

In  matters  of  general  administration,  decentralization  is  the  key- 
note of  the  Japanese  Army,  and  each  division  is  almost  autonomous. 
It  is  maintained  complete  in  all  its  branches  in  time  of  peace  so 
that  it  can  be  moved  in  its  entirety  in  time  of  war  and  its  place  im- 
mediately taken  by  a  reserve  division.  The  medical  department  is 
no  exception  to  this  general  rule. 

At  the  headquarters  of  each  division  district  there  is  a  Chief  Medi- 
cal Officer,  with  rank  of  colonel,  who  is  in  direct  charge  of  the  medical 
personnel,  hospitals,  supply  depots,  etc.,  within  his  division. 

There  is  also  at  each  division  district  headquarters  a  garrison  hos- 
pital to  which  all  of  the  seriously  sick  of  the  division  are  sent.  This 
hospital  is  under  a  Hospital  Director,  with  rank  of  colonel  or  lieu- 
tenant colonel,  and  a  considerable  staff  of  medical  officers.  Attached 
to  each  division  hospital  is  one  pharmacist  and  one  officer  of  the  "  in- 
tendance"  in  charge  of  supplies  other  than  medical. 

In  time  of  war  these  garrison  hospitals  become  the  principal  hos- 
pital of  the  division  and  all  other  hospitals,  convalescent  camps,  etc., 
which  are  established  within  the  division,  become  its  branches  and  are 
under  the  control  of  the  Hospital  Director. 

No  hospitals  are  maintained  by  individual  regiments.  Dispensary 
treatment  is  given  in  those  units  and  all  sick  requiring  hospital  treat- 
ment are  sent  to  the  garrison  hospital.  There  is,  however,  a  regi- 
mental medical  service  consisting  of  medical  officers  belonging  to  the 
medical  corps  and  an  enlisted  personnel  belonging  to  the  regiment 
itself. 

Japan  is  the  only  nation  which  maintains  in  peace  a  commissioned 
medical  personnel  with  regiments  and  other  combatant  units  larger 
than  that  provided  for  similar  units  in  war.  The  regulation  allow- 
ance for  medical  officers  in  peace  is  10  to  each  regiment,  while  in  war 
it  is  only  6  to  each  regiment.  This  unusual  provision  is  made  so 
as  to  have  available  medical  officers  trained  in  military  duties  for 
use  in  time  of  war  with  field  medical  units. 

WAR  ORGANIZATION. 

In  time  of  war  two  or  more  divisions  (usually  3)  are  mobilized 
to  form  field  armies.  At  the  head  of  the  medical  services  of  all  field 
armies  is  a  Principal  Medical  Officer  of  field  forces,  with  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  general.  His  station  is  with  the  general  staff  at  headquar- 
ters in  Tokyo. 

533 


54 

Each  field  army  has  a  Principal  Medical  Officer,  with  rank  of  major 
general,  on  the  staff  of  the  field  army  commander,  and  there  is  a 
Principal  Medical  Officer,  with  rank  of  colonel,  on  the  staff  of  the  in- 
spector general  of  lines  of  communication  for  each  field  army. 

Each  division  has  a  Principal  Medical  Officer,  with  rank  of  colonel. 
All  Principal  Medical  Officers,  including  those  of  divisions,  have  two 
medical  officers  as  assistants  and  several  enlisted  men  of  the  medical 
service  as  clerks. 

DIVISIONAIi  MEDICAL  SERVICE, 

When  a  division  is  mobilized  and  joins  a  field  army,  the  whole  of 
its  peace  staff  accompanies  it  into  the  field,  and  their  place  in  the 
depot  division  is  taken  by  officers  of  the  reserve  or  from  the  retired 
list.  The  medical  personnel  accompanying  the  division  is  rearranged 
and  augmented  by  personnel  obtained  from  the  reserve  in  order  to 
form  the  field  medical  units  authorized  for  each  division  in  time  of 
war. 

MEDICAL  SERVICE  WITH  COMBATANT  UNITS. 

Medical  officers  on  duty  with  regiments  have  rank  of  captain  or 
lieutenant.  Each  battalion  of  infantry  has  two  medical  officers,  and 
similar  units,  such  as  a  battery  of  artillery,  have  one  medical  officer. 
Thus  a  regiment  of  infantry  (three  battalions)  has  six  medical 
officers;  a  regiment  of  artillery  (three  batteries)  has  three  medical 
officers;  a  regiment  of  cavalry  (two  squadrons)  has  two  medical 
officers;  etc. 

ENLISTED  PERSONNEL. 

In  each  regiment  of  infantry  there  is  one  senior  noncommissioned 
officer  and  junior  noncommissioned  officers  in  the  proportion  of  one 
to  each  company.  In  addition  to  these  men  who  have  been  trained 
in  the  medical  service,  four  men  from  each  company  are  detailed  as 
litter  bearers.  The  total  enlisted  personnel  for  medical  service  in  a 
regiment  is  15  noncommissioned  officers  as  medical  assistants  and  48 
privates  as  litter  bearers.  In  the  smaller  units,  such  as  a  battery  of 
artillery,  company  of  engineers,  etc.,  there  are  no  litter  bearers,  but 
one  noncommissioned  officer  of  the  medical  service  is  on  duty  with 
each  medical  officer. 

FIELD   MEDICAL  UNITS. 

The  medical  units  with  each  division  are  one  bearer  battalion  and 
six  field  hospitals. 

633 


55 

BEARER  BATTAUEONS. 

Bearer  battalions  are  under  the  command  of  a  major  of  the  line, 
with  an  intendance  officer  attached.  Each  bearer  battalion  consists 
of — (a)  two  litter  bearer  companies;  (&)  a  dressing  station  section. 

Each  litter  beareT  company  is  commanded  by  a  captain  of  the  line 
and  is  composed  of  40  litter  squads  or  160  bearers,  with  an  additional 
personnel  for  auxiliary  services,  such  as  drivers,  cooks,  etc. 

The  dressing  station  section  consists  of  eight  medical  officers  (two 
captains  and  six  lieutenants),  one  apothecary,  and  senior  and  junior 
noncommissioned  officers  of  the  medical  service  as  assistants  to  the 
medical  officers.  The  exact  number  of  such  noncommissioned  officers 
can  not  be  ascertained. 

FIELD  HOSPITALS. 

Field  hospitals  have  a  capacity  of  200  bed  cases  each.  During  the 
Eusso- Japanese  War,  however,  field  hospitals  were  frequently  called 
on  to  take  care  of  as  many  as  600  serious  cases.  Each  j&eld  hospital 
is  under  command  of  a  major  surgeon,  with  five  medical  officers  as 
assistants.  Its  personnel  comprises,  in  addition,  one  apothecary,  one 
intendance  officer,  18  noncommissioned  officers,  and  90  privates. 

LINES  or  COMMUNICATION. 

The  medical  establishments  usual  to  lines  of  communication  are 
maintained  by  the  Japanese  Army.  The  personnel  for  these  estab- 
lishments is  largely  derived  from  that  furnished  by  the  Eed  Cross 
Society  and  that  procurable  from  among  the  civilian  population.  It 
is  a  fixed  rule,  however,  that  all  of  these  establishments  shall  be  un- 
der the  command  of  a  regular  medical  officer  of  experience. 

The  organization  of  several  units  on  the  lines  of  communication  is 
peculiar  to  Japan.  The  usual  evacuation  or  clearing  hospitals  at  the 
head  of  lines  of  communication  are  replaced  by  "  the  reserve  medical 
personnel." 

RESERVE  MEDICAL  PERSONNEL. 

These  units  are  organized  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  each  division, 
to  follow  up  the  field  hospitals  during  an  action  and  establish  sta- 
tionary field  hospitals  at  suitable  points  to  relieve  them.  They  also 
establish  rest  stations  along  the  route  of  evacuation.  Each  unit  is 
under  command  of  a  major,  medical  corps,  with  12  other  medical 
officers,  3  apothecaries  and  an  enlisted  personnel  approximately 
three  times  that  of  a  field  hospital. 

638 


56 

SICK  AND  WOUNDED  TRANSPORT  DETACHMENT. 

One  of  these  units  is  organized  for  each  division.  Its  duty  is  to 
evacuate  wounded  from  the  field  hospitals  to  the  stationary  field 
hospitals  or  to  the  railhead. 

Each  unit  is  commanded  by  a  major  from  the  retired  or  reserve 
list  of  the  line.  It  has  three  medical  officers  and  a  small  staff  of 
noncommissioned  officers  and  privates  of  the  medical  department. 
No  provision  is  made  for  transport  materiel  or  bearer  personnel. 
The  former  is  improvised  or  requisitioned  and  the  latter  organized 
out  of  local  resources. 

BASE  HOSPITALS. 

Base  hospitals  are  established  as  necessary  on  lines  of  communi- 
cation. There  is  no  definite  schedule  for  their  personnel  and  equip- 
ment, but  they  are  supplied  from  local  resources  or  from  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  Red  Cross  Society.  Regular  medical  officers  are  in 
command  of  these  hospitals,  however.  In  conducting  the  medical 
service  on  lines  of  communication,  it  is  the  policy  of  Japan  to 
utilize  voluntary  aid  to  the  greatest  extent.  It  is  a  fixed  rule  that 
all  medical  units,  however,  such  as  hospitals,  hospital  trains,  hospital 
ships,  etc.,  shall  at  all  times  be  imder  the  command  or  regular 
medical  officers  of  experience. 

HOME  TERRITORY. 

All  of  the  sick  and  wounded  that  are  sent  to  the  home  territory 
are  treated  in  reserve  hospitals.  These  reserve  hospitals  are  simply 
the  peace  garrison  hospitals  at  the  headquarters  of  each  division 
enlarged  as  the  occasion  demands.  During  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
many  of  these  garrison  hospitals  were  expanded  to  accommodate  from 
10,000  to  15,000  patients.  These  hospitals  are  under  the  command  of 
the  Hospital  Director  (colonel  or  lieutenant  colonel)  of  the  division 
district.  Through  subordinate  commanders  he  directs  the  operations 
of  all  subsidiary  hospitals,  convalescent  camps,  etc.  The  necessary 
personnel  for  these  reserve  hospitals  is  derived  from  the  depot  divi- 
sional medical  service,  from  the  reserves,  from  the  Red  Cross 
Society  and  from  available  civilian  sources. 

633 


57 

SUMMARY. 

Percentage  of  medical  offlvei's  in  permanent  peace  estaMishments. 


Nation. 

Per  cent. 

Remarks. 

0.52 
.43 

.42 

.36 
.34 
.36 
.30 
.29 

United  States 

RnglftTid                

In  addition  to  permanent  personnel,  there  are  on  duty  96  officers  from  the 
reserve  corps  and  15  contract  surgeons,  making  a  total  peace  percentage 
of  0.54. 

In  addition  to  permanent  personnel,  there  are  on  duty  65  officers  from  the 

France 

retired  list  and  182  from  the  reserve  list,  making  a  total  peace  percentage 
of  0.53. 

Austria 

All  these  countries  having  compulsory  service,  augment  their  permanent 
peace  personnel  by  medical  men  domg  their  service  with  the  colors. 

Germany 

Italy 

Percentage  of  medical  personnel  for  duty  directly  with  troops  as  taken  from 

tables  of  organization. 


Nation. 


1.  Japan... 

2.  France.. 

3.  Germany 

4.  Austria.. 


Commis- 
sioned. 


0.52 


.44 

.42 


Enlisted. 


5.10 


4.70 
5.30 


Nation. 


5.  United  States 

6.  Italy 

7.  Russia 

8.  England 


Commis- 
sioned. 


0.42 
.40 
.33 
.26 


Enlisted. 


3.80 
3.20 
7.00 
6.50 


A  study  of  these  figures  shows  that  the  percentage  of  medical  per- 
sonnel maintained  by  the  United  States  is  about  the  same  as  that  of 
England,  less  than  that  of  Japan  and  greater  than  that  of  continental 
countries  where  compulsory  service  exists. 

It  also  shows  that  upon  mobilization  for  war  the  entire  medical 
personnel  of  the  continental  armies  was  not  sufficient  to  complete  the 
sanitary  quota  of  the  field  armies ;  and  that  of  Japan  and  the  United 
States  would  be  just  sufficient,  while  England,  by  reason  of  the  fact 
that  she  does  not  make  such  ample  provision  for  her  field  forces  as 
do  other  armies,  had  a  slight  surplus  of  medical  personnel  available 
for  duty  in  administrative  positions  with  volunteer  forces  and  on 
lines  of  communications  and  home  territory. 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  total  number  of  sanitary  personnel 
required  for  the  various  hospitals  and  other  establishments  on  lines 
of  communication  and  in  the  zone  of  the  interior  is  even  greater  than 
that  required  for  service  directly  with  troops ;  and  it  has  also  shown 
that  the  higher  administrative  positions  in  these  establishments,  as 
well  as  with  field  arms  composed  of  raw  troops,  should  be  under  the 
direction  of  trained  military  surgeons. 

In  countries  having  compulsory  service,  and,  consequently,  a  large 
reserve,  it  is  the  custom  to  detail  regular  medical  officers  from  the 

533 


58 

standing  army  for  such  administrative  positions  and  to  supply  the  de- 
ficiency so  caused  from  the  reserves. 

In  countries  not  having  large  reserves  instantly  available,  it  is 
necessary  to  maintain  in  time  of  peace  a  medical  personnel  sufficiently 
large  to  be  capable  of  proper  expansion  and  the  proper  absorption  of 
untrained  volunteer  aid  in  time  of  war. 

o 


PAT.  JAN.  21.  1908         ' 


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/        LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


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